Formation of New States and Rural Expansion in the Peninsula (AD 300–750)

The period circa AD 300–750 marks the second historical phase in the regions south of the Vindhyas. It continued processes from the first phase (circa 200 BC–AD 300), which was marked by the ascendancy of the Satavahanas, the Tamil kingdoms, extensive crafts, internal and external trade, widespread coinage, and numerous towns.

The second phase introduced strikingly different features:

• Decline of trade, towns, and coinage — the money economy contracted sharply
• Large number of land grants to brahmanas, free of taxes — the defining instrument of this phase
• Land grants brought new areas under cultivation and settlement, producing far more rural/agrarian expansion than the first phase
• Triumph of brahmanism: Vedic sacrifices performed widely by kings; stone temples for Siva and Vishnu constructed (Pallavas in Tamil Nadu; Chalukyas in Karnataka)
• Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the official language of the peninsula from about AD 400
• By the beginning of the seventh century, three major states emerged: Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas of Badami, and Pandyas of Madurai

---

Vakatakas (Northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha/Berar)

The Satavahanas were succeeded in northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha by the Vakatakas — a local power. The Vakatakas were brahmanas themselves, known from a large number of copper-plate land grants to brahmanas. They were great champions of brahmanical religion and performed numerous Vedic sacrifices.

• Their political history is more important to north India than south India — we have seen how Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, gaining indirect control over central India
• Culturally, the Vakataka kingdom became a channel for transmitting brahmanical ideas and social institutions to the south

Chalukyas of Badami

The Chalukyas set up their kingdom towards the beginning of the sixth century AD in the western Deccan, establishing their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami, Bijapur district, Karnataka). They later branched into several independent ruling houses, but the main branch continued to rule at Vatapi for two centuries. In this period, no other power in the Deccan was as important as the Chalukyas of Badami until the rise of Vijayanagar in late medieval times.

• Played an important role in the history of the Deccan and south India for about two centuries till AD 757
• Overthrown by their feudatories, the Rashtrakutas, in 757
• Erected numerous temples at Aihole from about AD 610 — Aihole contains as many as 70 temples, work continued in adjacent towns of Badami and Pattadakal (Pattadakal has 10 temples built in the 7th and 8th centuries)
• Most celebrated temples at Pattadakal: Papanatha temple (c. 680) in northern style, and Virupaksha temple (c. 740) — 40 metres long, with a high square and storied tower (sikhara), walls adorned with sculptures from the Ramayana; built in the southern style

Ikshvakus

On the ruins of Satavahana power in the eastern part of the peninsula arose the Ikshvakus in the Krishna-Guntur region. They seem to have been a local tribe who adopted the exalted name of Ikshvakus to demonstrate the antiquity of their lineage. They left behind many monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota and started the practice of land grants in the Krishna-Guntur region (several copper-plate charters discovered).

Pallavas of Kanchi

The Ikshvakus were supplanted by the Pallavas. The term pallava means creeper — a Sanskrit version of the Tamil word tondai, which also carries the same meaning. In Tamil, pallava is also a synonym of robber.

• The Pallavas were possibly a local tribe who established their authority in the Tondainadu (land of creepers)
• Their authority extended over both southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu
• Capital: Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram) — became a town of temples and Vedic learning
• Early Pallavas: up to 16 land charters, a few on stone in Prakrit, most on copper-plate in Sanskrit
• Granted numerous villages free of taxes to brahmanas; as many as 18 kinds of immunities were granted in a Pallava grant of the fourth century — exemption from: land tax, forced labour (vishti), supply to royal officers, interference of royal constabulary and agents
• Villages granted to brahmanas: taxes that were collected from the peasantry went to the brahmanas for their enjoyment; brahmanas empowered to punish criminals in these villages

Kalabhras revolt: The oppressive brahmadeya system provoked a revolt led by the Kalabhras in the sixth century. Called evil rulers who overthrew innumerable kings, they established their hold on Tamil land and put an end to brahmadeya rights in numerous villages. They held Buddhist persuasions and patronised Buddhist monasteries. The revolt was finally put down only through the joint efforts of the Pandyas, the Pallavas, and the Chalukyas of Badami — showing the revolt had assumed wide proportions and was directed against the existing social and political order of south India.

Kadambas

The Kadamba kingdom was founded by Mayurasarman. He came to Kanchi for education but was driven out unceremoniously; smarting under this insult he set up his camp in a forest and defeated the Pallavas possibly with the help of forest tribes. The Pallavas eventually recognised the Kadamba authority by formally investing Mayurasarman with the royal insignia. He performed 18 asvamedhas and granted numerous villages to brahmanas. Capital: Vaijayanti or Banavasi (North Kanara district, Karnataka).

Western Gangas (Gangas of Mysore)

The Western Gangas set up their rule in southern Karnataka around the fourth century. Their kingdom lay between that of the Pallavas in the east and the Kadambas in the west — hence called Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore (to demarcate from Eastern Gangas of Kalinga). Their earliest capital is at Kolar — the gold mines there may have helped the rise of this dynasty. For most of the time the Western Gangas were feudatories of the Pallavas. They made land grants mostly to Jainas (unlike the Kadambas, who also made grants to Jainas but favoured brahmanas more).

---

The main political interest in peninsular India from the sixth to the eighth century centres on the long struggle between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami for supremacy. The Pandyas (controlling Madurai and Tinnevelly districts) joined this conflict as a poor third. Both Pallavas and Chalukyas championed brahmanism, performed Vedic sacrifices, and made grants to brahmanas — yet quarrelled for plunder, prestige, and territorial resources. The bone of contention: the land between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra (the doab), which became the bone of contention in late medieval times between Vijayanagar and the Bahmani kingdoms.

Key Events:

Pulakesim II (AD 609–642) — most famous Chalukya king:

• Known from his court poet Ravikirti's eulogy in the Aihole inscription — a poetic example of Sanskrit excellence and despite its exaggeration a valuable biographical source
• Overthrew the Kadamba capital at Banavasi
• Compelled the Gangas of Mysore to acknowledge his suzerainty
• Defeated Harsha's army on the Narmada and checked his advance towards the Deccan
• Wrested from the Pallavas the region between the Krishna and Godavari — set up the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi as a branch dynasty
• His second invasion of Pallava territory ended in failure; Pallava king Narasimhavarman (AD 630–668) occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about AD 642, when Pulakesim II was probably killed in fight against the Pallavas
• Narasimhavarman assumed the title Vatapikonda (conqueror of Vatapi)
• Also said to have defeated the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Kalabhras

Chalukya Vikramaditya II (AD 733–745):

• Overran Kanchi three times
• In AD 740 completely defeated the Pallavas; his victory ended the Pallava supremacy in the far south, though the ruling house continued for more than a century afterwards
• Chalukyas could not enjoy this victory long: their own hegemony was brought to an end in 757 by the Rashtrakutas

---

Rise of Temple Construction

• Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva worship was getting popular; especially the last two
• From the seventh century, the Alvar saints popularised Vishnu worship; the Nayanmars rendered similar service to Siva
• Pallava kings constructed a number of stone temples in the seventh and eighth centuries
• Most famous: the seven ratha temples at Mahabalipuram (also called Mamallapuram) — 65 km from Madras; built in the seventh century by Narasimhavarman, who also founded this port city
• Mahabalipuram also famous for the Shore Temple (structural construction)
• Kailasanath temple at Kanchi — a very good example of Pallava structural temples, built in the eighth century
• Chalukyas: erected numerous temples at Aihole (70 temples), Badami, and Pattadakal (10 temples, 7th–8th centuries)
• Some temples in Karnataka under Chalukyas were erected by Jaina traders

How Were Temples Maintained?

Early temples: maintained from taxes collected by the king from common people. After the eighth century, land grants to temples became a common phenomenon in south India — recorded on the walls of the temples.

---

The enormous resources needed for wars, art, literature, religion, and administration were provided by the peasantry. The burdens were similar in the Vakataka and Pallava kingdoms:

• Land tax: a part of the produce
• Benevolence (in the form of cereals and gold)
• Bore certain trees (such as palmyra) for obtaining salt, moist substances (sugar, liquor)
• All deposits and hidden treasures in the villages belonged to the king
• Demanded flowers, milk, wood, and grass
• Could compel villagers to carry loads free of charge
• King entitled to forced labour (vishti)
• In connection with royal officials' visits: rural communities had to supply bullocks for carts, provide cots, charcoal, ovens, cooking pots, and attendants

The 18 types of immunities granted to brahmanas from the fourth century AD demonstrate that these burdens were real and extensive — the brahmanas were specifically exempted from all of them. Later, more and more demands were made on the peasantry.

---

The numerous demands made on the agrarian population presuppose capacity to pay — which in turn required an increase in agricultural production. This period therefore witnesses the formation of new states in the trans-Vindhyan regions, each having feudatory chiefdoms (small states within a large state). Each state needed:

• Its own army
• Its own taxation system
• Its own administrative machinery
• A good number of priestly and similar supporters

All this required resources obtained from a rural base. States could not multiply without the proliferation of rural communities or increase in agricultural production. Brahmanas were granted land in tribal areas, and tribal peasantry learnt the value of preserving cattle and better methods of agriculture. In certain areas there was a dearth of labour — in such areas sharecroppers and weavers were made over to the brahmanas (as known from an early Pallava grant). Land grants therefore played an important role in spreading new methods of cultivation and increasing the size of rural communities.

Three Types of Villages in South India

1. Ur: Usual type of village inhabited by peasant castes who perhaps held their land in common; the village headman collected and paid taxes on their behalf; mainly found in southern Tamil Nadu
2. Sabha: Consisted of brahmadeya villages or those granted to brahmanas, and of agrahara villages; brahmana owners enjoyed individual rights in the land but carried on activities collectively
3. Nagaram: Villages settled and dominated by combinations of traders and merchants — happened possibly because trade declined and merchants moved to villages; in Chalukya areas, rural affairs managed by village elders called mahajana

---

• Society was dominated by princes and priests
• Princes claimed the status of brahmanas or kshatriyas — though many were local tribal chiefs promoted to the second varna through benefactions to priests
• Priests invented respectable family trees for these chiefs, tracing their descent from age-old solar and lunar dynasties — enabling new rulers to acquire legitimacy
• Priests were mainly brahmanas (though Jaina and Buddhist monks should also be placed in this category)
• In this phase, priests gained influence and authority because of land grants
• Below princes and priests came the peasantry — divided into numerous peasant castes, possibly mostly called sudras in the brahmanical system
• If peasant and artisan castes failed to produce and render services and payments, it was looked upon as a departure from dharma or norm — described as the age of Kali
• The title dharma-maharaja was adopted by Vakataka, Pallava, Kadamba, and Western Ganga kings — claimed by the real founder of Pallava power, Simhavarman in reference to his suppression of the Kalabhras who upset the existing social order

---

• This period lays the structural foundation of medieval south India — the feudal agrarian order, temple economy, and Sanskrit-brahmanical culture that would define the region
• The Pallava-Chalukya conflict is the defining political story of peninsular India between the 6th and 8th centuries
• The temple emerges as the central institution of south Indian civilisation — religious, economic, and social
• Land grants as the mechanism for state formation, tribal assimilation, agricultural expansion, and brahmanical cultural diffusion is the defining theme
• The Kalabhras revolt illustrates how oppressive brahmanical land grant systems provoked anti-establishment resistance — a class struggle dimension in ancient history

---

• GS Paper I — Art and Culture: Pallava temple architecture (ratha temples, Shore Temple, Kailasanath); Chalukya temples at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal — directly testable in Prelims and Mains
• GS Paper I — Ancient History: Pallava-Chalukya conflict, Pulakesim II, role of land grants in state formation
• Feudalism: Land grants → brahmana landlords → peasant oppression → Kalabhras revolt — the clearest illustration of south Indian feudalism's social contradictions
• Social History: Three types of villages (ur, sabha, nagaram); priest-prince-peasant social hierarchy; Kalabhras revolt as class-based resistance
• Economic History: Decline of trade and coinage → rise of land-grant economy → rural expansion — the central economic theme
• Interlinking: Chalukyas of Badami ↔ Pulakesim II ↔ Harsha ↔ Aihole inscription ↔ Rashtrakutas (overthrow 757 AD) ↔ Pallavas ↔ Narasimhavarman I ↔ Mahabalipuram

---

• Pallava meaning: Pallava = creeper (Sanskrit) = tondai (Tamil); also means robber in Tamil. Frequently asked in indirect form.
• Pulakesim II vs Pulakesim I: Pulakesim II (AD 609–642) is the famous Chalukya king who stopped Harsha. Do not confuse with earlier Chalukya rulers.
• Vatapikonda: Title assumed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (not Narasimhavarman II) after occupying Vatapi (Badami) and probably killing Pulakesim II in AD 642.
• Aihole inscription: Written by Chalukya court poet Ravikirti in praise of Pulakesim II. Not to be confused with the Allahabad inscription (Harishena/Samudragupta) or the Hathigumpha inscription (Kharavela).
• Mahabalipuram ratha temples: Built by Narasimhavarman I (not Narasimhavarman II). The Shore Temple was also built there. Kailasanath temple is at Kanchi (not Mahabalipuram), built in the 8th century.
• Chalukyas overthrown: The Chalukyas of Badami were overthrown by the Rashtrakutas in AD 757 — not by the Pallavas or Pandyas.
• Vikramaditya II: The Chalukya king who defeated the Pallavas completely in AD 740 and overran Kanchi three times. Do not confuse with Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (Gupta ruler).
• Western Gangas vs Eastern Gangas: Western Gangas = Gangas of Mysore (southern Karnataka); Eastern Gangas = Gangas of Kalinga (Orissa). They are different dynasties.
• Kalabhras: Anti-brahmanical rulers who revolted in the sixth century in Tamil land; held Buddhist persuasions; put down jointly by Pandyas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas. Do not describe them simply as 'invaders'.
• Three village types: (peasant castes, southern Tamil Nadu), (brahmadeya/agrahara villages), (traders/merchants). These are specific to south India in this period — do not apply to north Indian village types.

---

• Period: AD 300–750 = second historical phase south of Vindhyas
• Distinguishing features: decline of trade/coinage, land grants, rural expansion, Vedic sacrifices, Sanskrit as official language from AD 400
• Three major states by 7th century: Pallavas (Kanchi), Chalukyas (Badami), Pandyas (Madurai)
• Vakatakas: brahmanas; northern Maharashtra/Vidarbha; channel for brahmanical ideas to south
• Chalukyas: Vatapi/Badami capital; 6th century; overthrown by Rashtrakutas (757 AD)
• Ikshvakus: Krishna-Guntur; monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota
• Pallavas: Kanchi capital; pallava = creeper/tondai; 18 immunities in land grants
• Kadambas: Mayurasarman; Banavasi capital; 18 asvamedhas
• Western Gangas: Kolar capital; Mysore; feudatories of Pallavas; grants to Jainas
• Kalabhras revolt (6th century): against brahmadeya system; Buddhist persuasions; put down by joint effort of Pandyas, Pallavas, Chalukyas
• Pulakesim II (609–642): Aihole inscription (Ravikirti); stopped Harsha on Narmada; defeated by Narasimhavarman I (Vatapikonda) in AD 642
• Vikramaditya II (733–745): defeated Pallavas completely in AD 740; Chalukyas overthrown by Rashtrakutas in 757
• Temples: seven rathas at Mahabalipuram (Narasimhavarman I); Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram); Kailasanath (Kanchi, 8th century); Aihole (70 temples); Pattadakal (10 temples — Papanatha c.680, Virupaksha c.740)
• Village types: ur (peasant), sabha (brahmanical), nagaram (merchant); Chalukya areas: mahajana (village elders)
• Social structure: princes + priests dominate; peasantry (sudras) at base; dharma-maharaja title = suppressor of Kalabhras