Voting Behaviour in India

Voting behaviour — also called electoral behaviour — refers to the patterns and motivations that govern how voters exercise their franchise in a democratic system. It is a subset of the broader field of political behaviour, specifically concerned with electoral decision-making.

Several scholars have defined this field:

• Plano and Riggs describe it as a field of study concerned with how people tend to vote in public elections and why they vote as they do.
• Gordon Marshall emphasises that the study focuses on the determinants of voter choice and the process by which voters arrive at their decisions.
• Oinam Kulabidhu defines it as behaviour that reflects voters' choices, preferences, ideological leanings, and concerns about societal and national issues.
• Stephen Wasby situates the study within the analysis of individual psychological make-up and its relationship with political action, alongside institutional patterns such as communication processes.

The scientific study of voting behaviour is called psephology — a branch of political science. The term derives from the ancient Greek word 'psephos' (a piece of pottery), because votes in classical Greek city-states (particularly on the banishment of dangerous individuals) were inscribed on pottery shards. The modern study of psephology was popularised by American political scientists and political sociologists.

Understanding voting behaviour serves several analytical and normative purposes:

1. It aids in comprehending political socialisation — how citizens internalise political values.
2. It helps assess how deeply democratic values have been internalised by both elites and the masses.
3. It reveals the real impact of the ballot box as an instrument of peaceful political change.
4. It shows the extent to which electoral politics represents continuity or rupture with historical patterns.
5. It helps determine whether a political system is driven by modern or primordial loyalties.

According to N.G.S. Kini, voting behaviour can be understood as:

• A way of legitimising democratic rule;
• An act of political participation and integration into the political community;
• An act of decision-making;
• A role-action embedded in political culture; or
• An expression of the individual citizen's relationship with formal government.

Given India's extraordinary social diversity, voting behaviour is shaped by a complex interplay of socio-economic and political factors.

1. Caste

Caste remains the single most important factor in Indian electoral behaviour at the local level. Rajni Kothari's dictum — 'Indian politics is casteist, and caste is politicised' — encapsulates this mutual reinforcement. Political parties build strategies around caste arithmetic; large castes in a constituency tend to back a respected member of their caste or a party with which their caste identifies. Paul Brass notes that inter-caste coalitions and local factional alignments further complicate this dynamic.

2. Religion

Religious identity significantly influences voter choices, particularly because political parties exploit communal sentiments during elections. Communal parties and vote-bank politics organised around religious communities persist despite India's constitutional secularism. No party entirely ignores the religion variable when strategising.

3. Language

Linguistic loyalties affect voter decisions, particularly in states defined by linguistic identities. The linguistic reorganisation of states (1956 and later) reflects the political salience of language. The rise of the DMK in Tamil Nadu and the TDP in Andhra Pradesh was significantly driven by linguistic sentiment (linguism — attachment to one's language combined with hostility toward other languages).

4. Region

Regionalism and sub-regionalism act as powerful mobilisers of voter sentiment. Regional parties appeal to voters through regional identity, sub-nationalist sentiment, and demands for greater autonomy or resources. In extreme cases, secessionist movements call for election boycotts, further manifesting the influence of this factor.

5. Personality / Charisma

The charismatic appeal of a leader can override party ideology or performance. Nationally, the electoral pull of Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Narendra Modi has been decisive in determining outcomes. At the state level, regional leaders with charismatic personalities similarly drive voter support for their parties.

6. Money

Money influences voters particularly in non-wave elections. Candidates and parties spend far in excess of prescribed limits; voters sometimes trade their votes for cash, liquor, or goods. However, Paul Brass makes an important distinction: money is effective under normal conditions but becomes irrelevant in a 'wave election' — when a clear national mood sweeps the electorate in a single direction on a transcendent issue, cutting across local calculations and caste coalitions.

7. Performance of the Ruling Party (Anti-Incumbency)

Voters evaluate the ruling party's record against the promises made in its election manifesto. Poor performance triggers the anti-incumbency factor — voter dissatisfaction with the ruling party. Classic examples: Congress lost in 1977 due to the Emergency; the Janata Party lost in 1980 for failing to deliver.

8. Party Identification

Emotional and psychological attachment to a party — regardless of its actual performance — acts as a stable predictor of voting. Party identification was strongest in the 1950s and 1960s and has declined since the 1970s, as voters have become more issue-driven and less party-loyal.

9. Ideology

Voters committed to specific ideologies (socialism, communism, secularism, nationalism) tend to vote for parties that espouse those values. However, truly ideology-driven voters remain a small fraction of the Indian electorate.

10. Other Determinants

Additional factors that influence electoral choices include:

• Political events before elections (wars, assassinations, corruption scandals)
• Economic conditions (inflation, unemployment, food shortages)
• Factionalism within parties and localities
• Age, sex, education, income (class)
• Rural vs. urban residence
• Family and kinship networks
• Candidate's individual appeal and track record
• Quality of election campaigns
• Political family background
• Role of media

Media plays a multidimensional and indispensable role in modern democratic elections:

1. Information Dissemination

Media is the primary channel through which voters receive information about the election process — from announcement and nominations to polling schedules, results, and MCC violations. Candidate affidavits (disclosing educational, financial, and criminal backgrounds) uploaded on the ECI website are widely reported by newspapers and channels, increasing transparency.

2. Enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct

Media serves as a watchdog against violations of the MCC, including use of money and muscle power, divisive rhetoric, and hate speech. Violations reported by media are taken up by the ECI as formal complaints. Media also sensitises parties, candidates, and voters about electoral laws and ethical conduct.

3. Compliance with Election Laws

Media must itself comply with election-related laws during the electoral period:

• Section 126A, RPA 1951 — Prohibits publishing exit poll results between the start of polling in the first phase and 30 minutes after the close of polling in the last phase.
• Section 126, RPA 1951 — Bars broadcasting election-related content through TV or cinema during the 48 hours before polling closes.
• Section 127A, RPA 1951 — Requires all printed election material (pamphlets, posters) to bear the printer's and publisher's names and addresses.
• Section 171H, IPC — Prohibits spending on advertisements without the candidate's authorisation.

4. Voter Education and Participation

Media can bridge the gap between what voters should know and what they actually know about registration, voter ID cards, EVM use, polling station locations, and timing. The ECI collaborates with media organisations to reach first-time voters, illiterate voters, and those in remote regions.

5. Government Media (Prasar Bharati)

The ECI has an arrangement with Prasar Bharati (All India Radio and Doordarshan) to provide free broadcast time to recognised national and state parties during elections, ensuring a level playing field. Prasar Bharati also contributes significantly to voter awareness campaigns. Other central information bodies (PIB, DAVP, National Film Development Corporation) are also urged to contribute to voter education efforts.

• The term psephology and its etymological root (psephos = piece of pottery) is a frequent factual question.
• Rajni Kothari's quote on caste and politics is a UPSC favourite.
• Paul Brass's distinction between a normal election and a wave election is conceptually important.
• Know all four legal provisions applicable to media during elections (Sections 126, 126A, 127A, RPA; Section 171H, IPC).
• The anti-incumbency factor — defined as voter dissatisfaction with the ruling party — is a standard political dynamics concept.
• The decline of strong party identification since the 1970s is an important historical trend.
• Party identification was strongest in the 1950s and 1960s.
• Free broadcast time on AIR/Doordarshan is provided to recognised national and state parties through Prasar Bharati.