Socio-Cultural Reform Movements of 19th–20th Century India

The encounter between Indian society and British colonial modernity created a profound intellectual and cultural crisis. Exposure to Western rationalism, Christianity, and modern education forced Indian thinkers to confront centuries of accumulated social evils — idol worship, caste rigidity, sati, child marriage, polygamy, and the degraded status of women. The response was not wholesale westernisation but a creative reformation: drawing selectively from India's own textual traditions while absorbing the rationalist spirit of the Enlightenment. These movements arose primarily among the educated urban middle class and spanned Hindus, Muslims, Parsis, and Sikhs.

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Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

Rammohan Roy (1772–1833), called the Father of Indian Renaissance and Maker of Modern India, stood at the threshold of India's modernity. Trained in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and English (he knew over a dozen languages), Roy combined deep scriptural knowledge with Enlightenment rationalism.

Core ideas: Monotheism grounded in the Vedas and Upanishads; reason as the supreme guide; opposition to idolatry, polytheism, caste, and sati. His Gift to Monotheists (1809) and translations of Vedic texts argued that original Hinduism was monotheistic and rational. His Precepts of Jesus (1820) praised the moral message of Christ while rejecting miracles — earning the wrath of missionaries.

Institutional work:

• 1814: Atmiya Sabha — propagated Vedantic monotheism; opposed idolatry.
• 1828: Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) — institutionalised his ideas; worship through prayer, meditation, and Upanishad readings; no idol or graven image permitted.

Features of Brahmo Samaj: Denounced polytheism and idol worship; rejected divine avataras; denied scriptural infallibility; took no definitive stand on karma/transmigration; criticised caste.

Social reform: Launched anti-sati campaign in 1818; visited cremation grounds; filed counter-petitions. Sati was finally criminalised in 1829. He also attacked polygamy, demanded women's inheritance rights, and championed widow remarriage. Supported David Hare's Hindu College (1817); founded Vedanta College (1825).

Political activism: Demanded Indianisation of services, separation of executive from judiciary, abolition of EIC's trading monopoly, fixation of maximum rents, and judicial equality between Indians and Europeans. Condemned zamindari oppression.

Opposition: Raja Radhakant Deb founded the Dharma Sabha (1830) to counter Brahmo Samaj — an orthodox body that paradoxically also favoured Western education for girls.

Samaj after Roy: Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905) revitalised the Samaj after joining in 1842. His Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839) and its organ Tattvabodhini Patrika studied India's past rationally. He attracted Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, the Derozians, and Ashwini Kumar Datta. Supported widow remarriage, women's education, anti-polygamy.

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–1884), made acharya in 1858, expanded the Samaj beyond Bengal — to UP, Punjab, Bombay, Madras. Dismissed from acharya post in 1865 for radical ideas: cosmopolitanisation, inter-caste marriages, and inclusion of all religions. He founded the Brahmo Samaj of India (1866); Debendranath's wing became Adi Brahmo Samaj. In 1878, Keshab controversially married his 13-year-old daughter to the Maharaja of Cooch-Behar with orthodox Hindu rituals, causing another split. Dissatisfied followers formed the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (Ananda Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb, Umesh Chandra Datta). The Dayal Singh College, Lahore (1910) implanted Brahmo ideas in Punjab.

Significance and limitations: Brahmo Samaj was pioneering but geographically limited — its influence rarely extended beyond Bengal and Calcutta.

Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio

Derozio (1809–31), a young Anglo-Indian teacher at Hindu College (1826–31), inspired a radical, rationalist intellectual trend among Bengali youth. Drawing from the French Revolution, he urged students to question all authority, love liberty and equality, and reject decadent customs. He was the first nationalist poet of modern India. Dismissed from Hindu College in 1831 for radicalism, he died the same year aged 22.

Derozians demanded: Indianisation of higher services, protection of ryots from zamindars, better treatment of Indian labour abroad, revision of the Company's charter, freedom of press, trial by jury. Their limitation: no mass base, bookish radicalism, disconnected from peasant reality.

Surendranath Banerjea described them as "the pioneers of the modern civilisation of Bengal."

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Vidyasagar (a brilliant scholar and humanist) became Principal of Sanskrit College in 1850. He broke brahmin monopoly by opening Sanskrit College to non-brahmins. Championed widow remarriage (leading to legalisation), fought child marriage and polygamy, and organised 35 girls' schools as government inspector. Co-pioneer of Bethune School (1849), a landmark for women's higher education in India.

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Prarthana Samaj

Founded in Bombay in 1867 by Atmaram Pandurang, with Keshab Chandra Sen's help. The precursor was the Paramahansa Sabha — a secret society to spread liberal ideas. Mahadeo Govind Ranade (1842–1901) joined in 1870 and gave it an all-India character. Other leaders: R.G. Bhandarkar, N.G. Chandavarkar. Focused more on social reform than religion; attached to Maharashtra's bhakti tradition. Four-point agenda: oppose caste, women's education, widow remarriage, raise marriage age. Ranade and Dhondo Keshav Karve founded the Widow Remarriage Movement and Widows' Home Association.

Balshastri Jambhekar (1812–1846)

Father of Marathi journalism. Started Darpan (1832) and Digdarshan (1840). Attacked brahminical orthodoxy; propagated scientific temper and widow remarriage. First professor of Hindi at Elphinstone College.

Paramahansa Mandali (founded 1849, Maharashtra)

Secret society by Dadoba Pandurang and Mehtaji Durgaram. Linked to Manav Dharma Sabha's ideology. Members ate food cooked by lower caste people. Advocated widow remarriage, women's education. Active in Poona, Satara.

Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj

Phule (1827–1890), born in the mali (gardener) caste in Satara, mounted the most sustained attack on Brahmin supremacy in 19th century India. Founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers' Society) in 1873; leadership from backward classes — malis, telis, kunbis. Key works: Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri. Used the symbol of Rajah Bali (vs brahmins' Rama). Pioneer in women's education — opened a girls' school in Poona with wife Savitribai. Opened a home for widows (1854). Awarded the title 'Mahatma' for social work.

Gopalhari Deshmukh 'Lokahitawadi' (1823–1892)

Rationalist reformer; wrote for Prabhakar under the pen name 'Lokahitawadi'. Said: "If religion does not sanction social reform, then change religion." Founded Hitechhu, Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856–1895)

Co-founder of New English School, Deccan Education Society, Fergusson College (also its principal). First editor of Kesari (started by Tilak). Later started Sudharak — spoke against untouchability and caste.

Servants of India Society (1905)

Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915) with Ranade's help. Trained national missionaries; promoted constitutional service to India; cadre of selfless workers. Remained aloof from politics. Published Hitavada (1911). After Gokhale's death (1915), Srinivasa Shastri took over.

Indian Social Conference (1887)

Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao. Met annually alongside the Indian National Congress. Called the 'social reform cell of INC'. Advocated inter-caste marriages; opposed polygamy and kulinism; launched the Pledge Movement against child marriage.

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Sree Narayana Guru and SNDP Movement

Sree Narayana Guru (1856–1928) championed the cause of the Ezhavas of Kerala — a backward caste of toddy-tappers, constituting 26% of Kerala's population, denied education and temple entry. In 1888, at Aruvippuram on Sivaratri, he consecrated a Sivalinga taken from the Neyyar river — symbolically breaking the upper-caste monopoly over consecration. His words: "Devoid of dividing walls of caste or race or hatred of rival faith, we all live here in brotherhood."

SNDP Yogam (Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam) registered in 1903 under the Indian Companies Act, with Narayana Guru as permanent chairman and Kumaran Asan as general secretary. Key demands: access to public schools, government services, roads, temples, and political representation. Dr Palpu's contributions (Ezhava Memorial, Malayali Memorial) preceded the SNDP's formation.

Justice Movement

Started in Madras Presidency by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P. Tyagaraja to secure jobs and political representation for non-brahmins. In 1917, the Madras Presidency Association was formed, demanding separate representation for lower castes in the legislature.

Self-Respect Movement

Started in the mid-1920s by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (a Balija Naidu). Aimed at rejecting brahminical religion and culture as instruments of lower-caste exploitation. Formalised weddings without brahmin priests.

Temple Entry Movement

Vaikom Satyagraha (1924) in Kerala, led by K.P. Kesava, demanded temple entry for untouchables. Reinforced by jathas from Punjab and Madurai; Gandhi toured Kerala in support. In 1931, K. Kelappan and poet Subramaniyam Tirumambu ('singing sword of Kerala') led volunteers to Guruvayur. Finally, on November 12, 1936, the Maharaja of Travancore issued a proclamation opening all government-controlled temples to all Hindus. C. Rajagopalachari administration in Madras followed in 1938.

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Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886), a poor priest at Kali temple, Dakshineshwar (born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay), taught through parables. He emphasised the fundamental oneness of all religions — "As many faiths, so many paths." He founded the Ramakrishna Math with monastic disciples. His wife, Sarada Devi, played a crucial role in encouraging disciples.

Swami Vivekananda (born Narendranath Datta, 1862–1902) was Ramakrishna's foremost disciple and the preacher of neo-Hinduism. He synthesised Vedanta with social action and nationalism.

Chicago Parliament of Religions (1893): Vivekananda called for a synthesis of Western materialism and Eastern spiritualism for world harmony.

Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded for humanitarian relief and social work — schools, hospitals, disaster relief. Globally active; non-proselytising. Not a sect of Hinduism. Accepts image worship (unlike Arya Samaj). Ramakrishna Math finally shifted to Belur (1898) and registered there. Monastic order open to all without caste discrimination.

Key Vivekananda doctrine: Service of jiva is worship of Shiva. Secular knowledge for economic uplift + spiritual knowledge for inner strength — both needed for the masses.

Subhas Chandra Bose said: "So far as Bengal is concerned Vivekananda may be regarded as the spiritual father of the modern nationalist movement."

Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj

Dayananda Saraswati (Mulshankar, 1824–1883), born in old Morvi state, Gujarat, in a brahmin family. Wandered as an ascetic for 15 years (1845–60). Received Vedanta education from blind teacher Swami Virajananda in Mathura. Founded first Arya Samaj unit at Bombay, 1875; HQ later at Lahore. Published Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition). Slogan: "Back to the Vedas" — not a return to Vedic era but to Vedic purity and learning.

Key doctrines: Attacked idolatry, polytheism, untouchability, caste rigidities, magic, animal sacrifice, shraddhas. Advocated chaturvarna by merit and occupation, NOT by birth. Believed God, soul, and matter (prakriti) are distinct eternal entities — rejected maya philosophy. Theory of karma: good deeds should benefit others.

Ten guiding principles of Arya Samaj include: God as source of true knowledge; Vedas as books of true knowledge; social well-being of mankind above individual; truth acceptance and untruth abandonment; dharma as guiding principle.

Social ideals: Fatherhood of God; brotherhood of man; equality of sexes; intercaste marriages; widow remarriage. Minimum marriageable age: 25 for boys, 16 for girls.

Split of 1893: Over D.A.V. College curriculum (founded 1886, Lahore).

• College Party (Lala Hansraj, Lala Lajpat Rai): English education, government curriculum.
• Mahatma/Gurukul Party (Guru Datta Vidyarthi, Lala Munshi Ram/Swami Shraddhanand): Sanskrit, Vedic philosophy, strict vegetarianism. Swami Shraddhanand opened Gurukul at Gujaranwala (1900), later moved to Kangri near Haridwar (1902) — Gurukul Kangri. Founded Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Jalandhar (1896).

Shuddhi Movement: Reconversion campaign for those who had converted to Christianity or Islam — initially to uplift 'untouchables', but led to communalisation of social life in the 1920s.

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Wahabi/Walliullah Movement

Shah Walliullah (1702–1763) inspired this revivalist response. He sought harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence and role of individual conscience in religion. Further popularised by Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Barelvi — who gave it a political dimension and called India dar-ul-Harb (land of kafirs), to be converted to dar-ul-Islam. Directed initially at Sikhs in Punjab; after British annexation of Punjab (1849), directed against the British. Played important role in the 1857 Revolt. Fizzled out in the 1870s.

Titu Mir's Movement

Mir Nithar Ali (Titu Mir), disciple of Syed Ahmed Barelvi, organised Muslim peasants of Bengal against Hindu landlords and British indigo planters. Killed in action in 1831.

Faraizi Movement

Founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818 in East Bengal. Emphasis on Islamic pillars of faith (fara'id). Son Dudu Mian made it revolutionary from 1840 — organisational network from village to province, with khalifa at every level; paramilitary force; own law courts; told followers not to pay rent. Dudu Mian's arrest in 1847 weakened the movement; it survived only as a religious movement after his death (1862).

Ahmadiyya Movement

Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889. Liberal Islamic sect; opposed jihad; promoted Western liberal education among Muslims; believed Messiah had come in the person of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Separated mosque from State; championed human rights and tolerance.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement

Syed Ahmed Khan (1817–1898): Loyalist judge, member of Imperial Legislative Council (1878), knighted (1888). Published Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement of Manners and Morals). Founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh, 1875 (later Aligarh Muslim University). Reconciled Western scientific education with the Quran; advocated rational interpretation of Islamic texts. Opposed purdah, polygamy; advocated easy divorce; condemned piri-muridi system. Argued Muslims should focus on education and jobs before politics. However, he later allowed himself to be used by colonial divide-and-rule policy.

Aligarh Movement aimed at: modern education without weakening allegiance to Islam; social reform (purdah, polygamy, widow remarriage, women's education). Gave Muslims a distinct socio-cultural identity on modern lines.

Deoband Movement

Begun at Darul Uloom, Deoband, Saharanpur in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1832–80) and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828–1905). Objective: propagate pure Quran and Hadis; keep alive spirit of jihad against foreign rulers. Contrast with Aligarh: Deoband rejected Western education and British patronage; chose moral-religious regeneration. In 1888, issued a fatwa against Syed Ahmed Khan's organisations. Welcomed the Indian National Congress. Mahmud-ul-Hasan synthesised Islamic principles with nationalist aspirations. Shibli Numani favoured English and European sciences; founded Nadwat-ul-Ulama and Darul Uloom, Lucknow (1894–96). The Jamiat-ul-Ulema gave concrete form to these ideas.

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Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) — founded 1851 by English-educated Parsis: Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama, S.S. Bengalee. Organ: Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller). Reformed Parsi religious rituals; raised women's status — removed purdah, raised marriage age, promoted education. Parsis gradually became the most westernised section of Indian society.

Seva Sadan — founded 1908 by Parsi social reformer Behramji M. Malabari (1853–1912) and Diwan Dayaram Gidumal. Advocated against child marriage; for widow remarriage. Specialised in rehabilitating exploited women — provided education, medical and welfare services to all castes. Malabari's efforts led to the Age of Consent Act.

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Singh Sabha Movement — founded at Amritsar, 1873. Twin objectives: (i) modern Western education for Sikhs; (ii) counter proselytising activities of Christian missionaries, Brahmo Samajists, Arya Samajists, and Muslim maulvis. Established Khalsa schools throughout Punjab. Rejected everything contrary to Guru's teachings.

Akali Movement (Gurudwara Reform Movement) — offshoot of Singh Sabha Movement. Aimed at liberating Sikh gurudwaras from corrupt Udasi mahants (hereditary, government-patronised, reactionary). Non-violent, non-cooperative satyagraha launched in 1921. Government passed Sikh Gurudwaras Act, 1922 (amended 1925), giving gurudwara control to Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).

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Founded in New York, 1875 by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1831–1891) and Colonel M.S. Olcott. HQ shifted to Adyar, near Madras, in 1882. Accepted Hindu beliefs in reincarnation and karma; drew from Upanishads, Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta. Aimed at universal brotherhood regardless of race, creed, sex, caste, or colour. Opposed child marriage; advocated abolition of caste discrimination; worked for widow uplift.

Annie Besant (1847–1933) became president after Olcott's death (1907) — arrived India in 1893. Founded Central Hindu College, Benaras (1898) — nucleus for Benaras Hindu University (1916). Did much for women's education.

Limitation: Vague philosophy; impact limited to westernised class. As revivalists, limited success. But gave Indians much-needed self-respect by glorifying Indian philosophy and culture.

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• Radhaswami Movement (1861): Founded by Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb), a banker from Agra. Believed in one supreme being, supremacy of guru, satsang (pious company), simple social life. Spiritual attainment does not require worldly renunciation. All religions are true. No temples or shrines.
• Dev Samaj (1887): Founded at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri (earlier a Brahmo follower). Emphasised eternity of soul, guru's supremacy, good action. Spoke against child marriage. Compiled teachings in Deva Shastra.
• Bharat Dharma Mahamandala (1902): All-India orthodox Hindu body formed by uniting Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895), Dharma Maha Parishad (South India), and Dharma Mahamandali (Bengal). HQ at Varanasi. Defended orthodox Hinduism against Arya Samaj, Theosophists, Ramakrishna Mission. Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya was a prominent figure.
• Social Service League: Founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi (Gokhale's follower) in Bombay. Organised schools, libraries, legal aid, medical relief, slum excursions, cooperative societies. Joshi also founded the All India Trade Union Congress (1920).

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Positive Aspects

• Liberated individuals from fear-based conformity and priestly exploitation.
• Translation of religious texts into vernaculars democratised scriptural access.
• Emphasised human reason's capacity to think and inquire.
• Gave rising middle classes cultural roots; reduced humiliation of colonial conquest.
• Fostered secular, rational, modern outlook — changed notions of 'pollution and purity'.
• Ended India's cultural and intellectual isolation.
• Contributed to the evolution of national consciousness.
• Reform was modernisation, not blind westernisation — sought to integrate modern ideas into Indian cultural streams.

Negative Aspects

• Narrow social base — educated, urban middle class; ignored peasantry and urban poor.
• Appeal to scriptural authority encouraged mysticism in new garbs; hindered full embrace of scientific outlook.
• Compartmentalised communities (Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Parsis) — contributed to communal consciousness.
• Hindu reformers glorified ancient period; Muslim reformers turned to West Asian history — notion of two separate peoples.
• Overemphasis on religious/philosophical culture; underemphasis on art, architecture, literature, science.
• The historical process of composite culture formation was arrested to some extent.

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• Reform Movements ↔ Rise of Indian Nationalism (national consciousness grew from cultural self-assertion)
• Brahmo Samaj / Arya Samaj ↔ Social Reform Legislation (Sati Abolition 1829, Age of Consent Act, etc.)
• Aligarh Movement ↔ Muslim League Formation (modern Muslim identity, eventual separatist politics)
• Deoband ↔ INC ↔ Opposition to Aligarh (contrasting responses of Muslim intelligentsia)
• Dalit/lower caste movements (Phule, SNDP, Self-Respect) ↔ B.R. Ambedkar's later anti-caste constitutionalism
• Shuddhi Movement ↔ Rise of communalism in the 1920s

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• GS Paper I — Modern History: This chapter is central to questions on 19th-century social reforms, role of educated middle class, colonial modernity, and the Indian Renaissance.
• Nationalism and Colonialism: Reform movements were not simply religious — they had nationalist undertones. They built the confidence and cultural identity that fuelled anti-colonial nationalism. Vivekananda's influence on the Bengal nationalist movement, and Arya Samaj's role in Punjab are key examples.
• Social Change: The struggle against sati, caste, child marriage, and polygamy represents a foundational phase of India's social transformation, directly continuing in constitutional provisions on equality and social justice.
• Caste and Social Justice: Phule's Satyashodhak Samaj, SNDP, Justice Movement, and Self-Respect Movement are precursors to the Dalit rights movement and reservation policy debates.
• Religion and Reason: The tension between orthodox tradition and rational reform remains relevant to contemporary debates on religious practice, secularism, and personal law reform.
• Women's Rights: All major reform movements engaged with women's issues — this lineage connects to the women's movement, the Dowry Prohibition Act, and ongoing gender justice debates.

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1. Brahmo Samaj founding year: Brahmo Sabha was founded in 1828 — it was later renamed Brahmo Samaj. Don't confuse with Atmiya Sabha (1814).
2. Derozio's dates: Removed from Hindu College in 1831, died same year. NOT a long-lived movement. Don't confuse with the Brahmo Samaj.
3. Three Brahmo Samaj splits: (a) Original Samaj → Adi Brahmo Samaj vs Brahmo Samaj of India (1866, after Keshab's dismissal); (b) Brahmo Samaj of India → Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (1878, after Keshab's daughter's marriage).
4. Arya Samaj founded at Bombay (1875) — HQ was later at Lahore. Don't say it was founded at Lahore.
5. Back to the Vedas ≠ back to Vedic era: Dayananda's slogan meant revival of Vedic learning and purity, NOT a nostalgic return to ancient Vedic social practices. He accepted modernity.
6. Prarthana Samaj ≠ Paramahansa Mandali: Prarthana Samaj (1867, Bombay) and Paramahansa Mandali (1849, Maharashtra) are different. Ranade joined Prarthana Samaj, not the Paramahansa Mandali.
7. Deoband vs Aligarh: Deoband (1866) rejected Western education; Aligarh (1875) promoted it. Deoband supported INC; Aligarh (under Syed Ahmed Khan) opposed it. UPSC loves to ask the contrast.
8. SNDP Yogam registered in 1903, not 1888 — 1888 was Aruvippuram consecration.
9. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj founders: Ananda Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb, Umesh Chandra Datta — not Keshab (he was the one they broke away from).
10. Ramakrishna Mission (1897) vs Ramakrishna Math (earlier, Belur 1898): The Math predates the Mission in spirit (Paramahamsa laid its foundations) but the Mission was formally founded by Vivekananda in 1897; Math registered at Belur in 1898.
11. Faraizi Movement — founded 1818 by Haji Shariatullah; became revolutionary under his son Dudu Mian (from 1840). Do not confuse Titu Mir's movement with the Faraizi Movement — both were Wahabi-influenced peasant movements in Bengal.

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• Rammohan Roy: 1772–1833; Atmiya Sabha (1814); Brahmo Sabha (1828); Sati abolished 1829; Gift to Monotheists (1809); Precepts of Jesus (1820).
• Derozio: Anglo-Indian; Hindu College 1826–31; first nationalist poet of modern India.
• Brahmo Samaj phases: Roy → Debendranath (1842) → Keshab (1858) → Split 1866 → Split 1878.
• Prarthana Samaj (1867): Bombay; Ranade (joined 1870); social reform over religion.
• Arya Samaj (1875): Bombay; Satyarth Prakash; 'Back to the Vedas'; split 1893 (D.A.V. vs Gurukul).
• Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Phule; backward class leadership; anti-brahmin.
• Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Vivekananda; service of jiva = worship of Shiva; Chicago 1893.
• SNDP (1903): Narayana Guru; Ezhavas of Kerala; Kumaran Asan as general secretary.
• Wahabi Movement: Walliullah (1702–63) → Syed Ahmed Barelvi (political); anti-Sikh → anti-British; fizzled out 1870s.
• Faraizi (1818): Haji Shariatullah; East Bengal; Dudu Mian made it revolutionary (1840).
• Aligarh (1875): Syed Ahmed Khan; modern education for Muslims; later communal divergence.
• Deoband (1866): Nanotavi and Gangohi; orthodox; anti-Western; supported INC.
• Theosophical Society: New York (1875); HQ Adyar, Madras (1882); Annie Besant; BHU (1916).
• Singh Sabha (1873); Akali Movement (1921); Sikh Gurudwaras Act (1922); SGPC.
• Vaikom Satyagraha (1924); Travancore temple proclamation: November 12, 1936.