Consolidation of the Mughal Empire: Age of Akbar

When Humayun died in January 1556, the thirteen-year-old Akbar was at Kalanaur in the Punjab, commanding operations against Afghan rebels. He was crowned there at the young age of thirteen years and four months. The Mughal position was precarious: Afghans remained strong beyond Agra, regrouping under Hemu — the wazir of Adil Shah (a nephew of Sher Shah) — who had not lost a single one of his twenty-two battles. Hemu captured Agra and marched on Delhi with 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants, and a strong park of artillery. Kabul was being besieged by Sikandar Sur. The crisis demanded a decisive response.

Bairam Khan — Humayun's trusted tutor and loyal officer, now the wakil of the kingdom with the title khan-i-khanan — rose to the occasion. He bolstered Mughal morale and marched on Delhi before Hemu could consolidate.

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The battle between the Mughals and Hemu's Afghan forces was fought at Panipat — the same ground as the first decisive battle thirty years earlier. Though Hemu's artillery had been captured earlier by a Mughal detachment, the tide was still in his favour when an arrow struck Hemu in the eye and he fainted. The leaderless Afghan army collapsed. Hemu was captured and executed. Thus Akbar had to virtually reconquer his empire before he could consolidate it.

Significance of Panipat II:

• Ended the last serious Afghan challenge to Mughal supremacy.
• Secured Delhi and Agra firmly for the Mughals.
• Demonstrated that the Mughal empire could survive the death of a ruler and the accession of a minor — a major test of institutional resilience.

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Bairam Khan's Regency (1556–60)

Bairam Khan managed the empire's affairs for nearly four years. During this period:

• The nobility was kept fully under control.
• The danger to Kabul was averted.
• Territories expanded from Kabul to Jaunpur in the east and Ajmer in the west.
• Gwalior was captured; vigorous efforts were made to conquer Ranthambhor and Malwa.

However, Bairam Khan had offended many powerful persons — charging him with being a Shia and appointing his own supporters to high offices while neglecting old nobles. More critically, he failed to realise that Akbar was growing up and wanting to take personal control. Friction grew on small points; Akbar slipped away to Delhi on the pretext of hunting, issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan, and called all nobles to submit to him personally. Bairam Khan, realising resistance was futile, submitted. Akbar received him cordially and offered him the choice of serving at court, serving anywhere outside, or retiring to Mecca. Bairam Khan chose Mecca. On his way, he was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan bearing a personal grudge.

Akbar married Bairam Khan's widow (who was his cousin) and brought up his young child, Abdur Rahim, who later became famous as Khan-i-Khanan — one of the most important officers and commanders of the empire.

The Uzbek Rebellion and the Mirzas (1561–67)

After Bairam Khan, groups in the nobility became politically active. Akbar's foster-mother Maham Anaga and her relations — particularly her impetuous son Adham Khan — assumed independent airs. Adham Khan, sent to command the expedition against Malwa, laid claim to the post of wazir and when it was not conceded, stabbed the acting wazir in his office. Akbar had him thrown down from the parapet of the fort, killing him (1561).

The Uzbeks formed a powerful noble group holding important positions in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa. Between 1561 and 1567 they broke out in rebellion several times. When they rebelled again in 1565, Akbar was so exasperated that he vowed to make Jaunpur his capital till he had rooted them out.

Meanwhile, a rebellion by the Mirzas (Timurids related to Akbar by marriage) threw areas west of modern Uttar Pradesh into confusion. Akbar's half-brother Mirza Hakim seized control of Kabul, advanced into the Punjab, and besieged Lahore. The Uzbek rebels formally proclaimed him their ruler — the most serious crisis Akbar had faced since Hemu's capture of Delhi.

Akbar marched from Jaunpur to Lahore, forcing Mirza Hakim to retire. Meanwhile, the Mirzas were crushed and fled to Malwa and then Gujarat. Akbar crossed the Yamuna near Allahabad at the height of the rainy season, surprised the Uzbek rebels led by Uzbek nobles, and completely routed them (1567). The Uzbek leaders were killed, bringing their protracted rebellion to an end. All the rebellious nobles, including those who had been dreaming of independence, were cowed down. Akbar was now free to concentrate on the expansion of the empire.

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Malwa and Garh-Katanga

During Bairam Khan's regency, the most important conquests were of Malwa and Garh-Katanga.

Malwa was being ruled by a young prince, Baz Bahadur, famous for his mastery of music and poetry and his romance with Rupmati (who was also renowned for her beauty and musical talent; Mandu had become a celebrated centre for music). Baz Bahadur's army had been neglected. The expedition against Malwa was led by Adham Khan (Maham Anaga's son). Baz Bahadur was badly defeated (1561); the Mughals took valuable spoils including Rupmati, who preferred to commit suicide rather than be dragged to Adham Khan's harem. However, due to the senseless cruelties of Adham Khan and his successor, a reaction against the Mughals enabled Baz Bahadur to recover Malwa. After Akbar sent a second expedition, Baz Bahadur fled, took shelter with the Rana of Mewar, and finally repaired to Akbar's court — enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar (rank of 2000). Malwa thus came under permanent Mughal control.

Garh-Katanga — the most powerful kingdom set up by the Gonds, comprising the Narmada valley and northern portions of present Madhya Pradesh — was ruled by Durgavati (the famous queen) as regent for her minor son. She had fought many successful battles against her neighbours including Baz Bahadur. However, the cupidity of the Mughal governor of Allahabad, Asaf Khan, who advanced with 10,000 cavalry, led to the campaign against Garh-Katanga. Durgavati was wounded, fought gallantly, and finding that the battle was lost and capture imminent, stabbed herself to death. Asaf Khan plundered the capital, Chauragarh (near modern Jabalpur) of immense wealth in jewels, gold, and silver. However, after Akbar dealt with the Uzbek rebellion, he forced Asaf Khan to disgorge his illegal gains and restored the kingdom to Chandra Shah (younger son of Sangram Shah), after taking ten forts to round off Malwa.

Gujarat (1572)

Gujarat had been in a sorry state since the death of Bahadur Shah. Its fertility, highly developed crafts, and importance as the centre of import-export trade with the outside world made it a prize worth fighting for. Akbar also claimed it because Humayun had ruled over it for some time, and the Mirzas who had failed in their rebellion near Delhi had taken shelter there.

In 1572, Akbar advanced on Ahmadabad via Ajmer. Ahmadabad surrendered without a fight. Akbar then turned his attention to the Mirzas holding Broach, Baroda, and Surat. At Cambay, Akbar saw the sea for the first time and rode on a boat; a group of Portuguese merchants came and met him for the first time. The Portuguese dominated the Indian seas by this time.

While Akbar's armies besieged Surat, Akbar crossed the river Mahi and with a small body of 200 men (including Man Singh and Bhagwan Das of Amber) assaulted the Mirzas — his life was in danger at one point, but his impetuosity routed them. Gujarat came under Mughal control. However, as soon as Akbar turned his back, rebellion broke out all over Gujarat. Akbar traversed across Rajasthan in nine days by means of camels, horses, and carts, reaching Ahmadabad on the eleventh day — a journey normally taking six weeks — with only 3,000 soldiers. He defeated the enemy force of 20,000 (1573).

Bengal and Bihar (1574–76)

The Afghans had continued to dominate Bengal and Bihar. They overran Orissa and killed its ruler. The Afghan ruler had not formally declared himself king, but read the khuba in Akbar's name. Internal fights among the Afghans and the declaration of independence by the new ruler, Daud Khan, gave Akbar the opportunity. The Afghan king was believed to possess a large army — 40,000 well-mounted cavalry, 150,000 infantry, several thousand guns and elephants, and a strong flotilla of war boats.

Akbar first captured Patna, securing Mughal communications in Bihar, then returned to Agra, leaving Khan-i-Khanan Munaim Khan in charge. The Mughal armies invaded Bengal. In a stiff battle in Bihar in 1576, Daud Khan was defeated and executed on the spot. Thus ended the last Afghan kingdom in northern India — also the first phase of Akbar's expansion of the empire.

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Land Revenue: From Sher Shah to Dahsala

The system of administration elaborated by Sher Shah had fallen into confusion after Islam Shah's death. Akbar had to start afresh.

Problem with Sher Shah's system: The ray (central schedule of prices) was fixed using prices prevailing at the Imperial Court — higher than country-side prices. Hence peasants had to part with a larger share of their produce.

Akbar's reform — Annual Assessment (Zabti):

• Reverted to annual assessment.
• Qanungos (hereditary holders of land who were also local officials conversant with local conditions) were ordered to report on actual produce, state of cultivation, and local prices.
• But qanungos were often dishonest and concealed real produce.

The Dahsala System (1580): After returning from Gujarat (1573), Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called karoris were appointed all over north India — responsible for collection of a crore of dams (Rs. 250,000) and also checking the facts and figures supplied by the qanungos.

On the basis of information about actual produce, local prices, and productivity (in 1580), Akbar instituted the dahsala system:

• The average produce of different crops was calculated.
• The average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated.
• One-third of the average produce was the state share.
• The state demand was stated in cash — converting the state share into money on the basis of average prices over ten years.
• Thus, the produce of a bigha of land under share was given in maunds, but on the basis of average prices, the state demand was fixed in rupees per bigha.

Further improvement — Assessment Circles:

• Parganas having the same type of productivity were grouped into separate assessment circles.
• Peasants were required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices.

Advantages of the Dahsala system:

• As soon as land was measured (by bamboos linked with iron rings), both peasant and state knew the dues.
• The peasant was given remission in land revenue if crops failed due to drought, floods, etc.
• The system of measurement and assessment based upon it is called the zabti system — associated with Raja Todar Mal (Todar Mal's bandobast). Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer who first served under Sher Shah but came to the forefront under Akbar. He was only one of a team of brilliant revenue officials.

Other systems of assessment:

1. Batai (ghalla-bakhshi): Most common and oldest — produce divided between peasants and state in fixed proportion after it had been thrashed or while standing in field. Very fair but needed honest officials at time of harvest.
2. Nasaq: A rough calculation of the amount payable based on what the peasant had been paying in the past. Also called kankut.
3. Land classification: Polaj (always cultivated), Parati (fallow, paid full rate when cultivated), Chachar (fallow 2–3 years, assessed at concessional rates), Banjar (fallow longer than 3 years, revenue rising to full rate only in 5th or 8th year). State helped bring wasteland under cultivation.

The dahsala was not a permanent ten-year settlement. The state retained the right to modify it. However, with some changes, Akbar's settlement remained the basis of the land revenue system of the Mughal empire till the end of the seventeenth century.

Attitude towards peasants:

• Akbar deeply interested in improvement and extension of cultivation.
• Asked the amil to act like a father to the peasants.
• He was to advance money by way of loans (taccavi) to the peasants for seeds, implements, animals, etc., and to recover in easy instalments.
• Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate their land and could not be ejected as long as they paid land revenue.
• Zamindars had a hereditary right to take a share of the produce and were enjoined to cooperate in expanding cultivation.

The Mansabdari System

Akbar could not have expanded and maintained his hold without a strong army and organised nobility. He achieved both objectives by means of the mansabdari system.

Structure:

• Every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
• The lowest rank was 10, the highest was 5000 for nobles; towards the end of the reign raised to 7000. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs.
• Ranks were divided into two: zat and sawar.
  • Zat meant 'personal' — fixed the personal status of the person and the salary due.
  • Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.
  • There were three categories in every rank (mansab): if a person maintained sawars equal to or more than his zat rank — first category; if half or more but less than zat — second category; if less than half — third category.
  • An additional allowance at Rs. 2 for every sawar was added to the zat salary of those who maintained a large quota of sawars.
  • No one could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat rank.

Salaries:

• Mughal mansabdars were paid very handsomely — probably the highest in the world at the time.
• A mansabdar holding rank of 100 zat received Rs. 500/month; rank 1000 zat — Rs. 4,400/month; rank 5000 zat — Rs. 30,000/month.
• There was no income tax in those days. The purchasing power of the rupee was calculated to be sixty times what it was in 1966.
• Even the nobles had to spend roughly half of their personal salary on the upkeep of animals for transport and administration of their jagirs.

Sawars and the 10-20 Rule:

• For every ten cavalrymen, the mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses (horses were rested while on march; replacements needed in times of war). A sawar with only one horse was counted as only half a sawar.
• Great care was taken to ensure sawars recruited by nobles were experienced and well-mounted.
• A descriptive roll (chehra) of the soldier was maintained and his horse was branded with the imperial mark (dagh system — borrowed from Alauddin Khalji's reforms, as continued by Sher Shah).
• The mansabdar had to bring his contingent for periodic inspection before persons appointed by the emperor.
• Only good quality horses of Arabic and Iraqi breed were employed.

Contingents and composition:

• Apart from cavalrymen, bowmen, musketeers (bandukchi), sappers, and miners were also recruited.
• Average salary of a sawar: Rs. 20/month; Iranis and Turanis received more; an infantryman received about Rs. 3/month.
• Provision was made that the contingents of nobles should be mixed — drawn from all groups: Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani, and Rajput. This tried to weaken the forces of tribalism and parochialism.

Jagir System:

• Salary due to soldiers was added to the personal salary of the mansabdar, who was paid by assigning him a jagir (sometimes mansabdars were paid in cash).
• Akbar did not like the jagir system but could not do away with it — it was too deeply entrenched.
• A jagir did not confer any hereditary rights on the holder, or disturb existing rights in the area. It only meant that the land revenue due to the state was to be paid to the jagirdar.
• Holdings were divided into jagir, khalisa, and inam. Income from khalisa villages went directly to the royal exchequer. Inam lands were allotted to learned and religious men. Jagirs were allotted to nobles and members of the royal family including queens. The amalguzar was required to exercise general supervision over all types of holdings.

Organisation of Central Government

Akbar reorganised the central machinery of administration on the basis of division of power between various departments, and of checks and balances.

Four key departments:

1. Diwan (Revenue Department):

• Head: diwan or diwan-i-ala (Akbar preferred this title to wazir).
• Responsible for all income and expenditure; held control over khalisa, jagir, and inam lands.
• The wazir title was not abolished but became largely decorative — given to important nobles from time to time but they played little part in administration.
• The head of the revenue department continued to be the wazir.

1. Mir Bakhshi (Military Department):

• Head: mir bakhshi (not the diwan, even though diwan was considered the head of the nobility).
• Only leading grandees were appointed to this post.
• Recommendations for appointment to mansabs or promotions were made to the emperor through the mir bakhshi. After the emperor accepted, it was sent to the diwan for confirmation and for assigning a jagir.
• The mir bakhshi was also head of the intelligence and information agencies — intelligence officers (barids) and news reporters (wagia-navis) were posted to all parts of the empire.
• Thus, the diwan and the mir bakhshi were almost on a par with, and supported and checked, each other.

1. Mir Saman (Imperial Household):

• Third important officer.
• In charge of the imperial household — supply of all provisions and articles for use of harem inmates and female apartments.
• Many articles were manufactured under supervision in royal workshops called karkhanas.
• Only nobles who enjoyed the complete confidence of the emperor were appointed to this office.

1. Chief Qazi (Judicial Department):

• Headed the judicial department.
• Post sometimes combined with that of the chief sadr — responsible for all charitable and religious endowments.
• Fell into bad odour due to corruption and venality of Akbar's chief qazi, Abdun Nabi.

Provincial Government:

• Akbar divided the empire into twelve subas in 1580: Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa, and Gujarat.
• Each province had: a governor (subadar), a diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a waqia-navis.
• The pargana and the sarkar continued as before. Chief officers of the sarkar were the faujdar (law and order) and the amalguzar (assessment and collection of land revenue).
• Orderly government based on the principle of checks and balances was extended to the provinces.

The Emperor's Daily Routine:

• The day started with the emperor's appearance at the jharoka of the palace — large numbers assembled daily to get a glimpse of the ruler and present petitions.
• These petitions were attended immediately or in the open darbar (diwan-i-am) which followed and lasted till midday.
• The emperor then retired to his apartments; ministers were called to the ghusal khana (private consultation chamber situated near the bathing apartment).

Military:

• Akbar kept a large body of cavalrymen as bodyguards.
• Also maintained a big stable of horses and a strong park of artillery.
• Specially interested in guns — devised detachable guns which could be carried on an elephant or a camel. Heavy siege guns required 100–200 oxen and several elephants to pull.
• Also built an efficient flotilla of war boats used in eastern campaigns (some boats were over 30 metres long and displaced over 350 tons).
• Lack of a strong navy remained a key weakness of the Mughal empire.

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Akbar's Rajput policy was a key element of his broader strategy of building a pan-Indian empire. When Humayun came back to India, he embarked upon a deliberate policy of winning over rajas and zamindars. Abul Fazl says that in order to soothe the minds of the zamindars, he entered into matrimonial relations with them.

Kachhawaha Alliance (Amber)

Bhara Mal (ruler of Amber) came to Akbar's court immediately after his accession. In 1562, when Akbar was going to Ajmer, he learnt that Bhara Mal was being harassed by the local Mughal governor. Bhara Mal paid personal homage and cemented the alliance by marrying his younger daughter, Harka Bai, to Akbar. Unlike the dola form of earlier marriages (where the bridegroom's party went to the raja's house), many Hindu practices were followed — this happened when Akbar was residing at Lahore.

Bhara Mal was made a high grandee. His son Bhagwan Das rose to the rank of 5000. His grandson Man Singh rose to the rank of 7000 — accorded by Akbar to only one other noble, Aziz Khan Kuka (his foster-brother). The infant prince Danyal was sent to Amber to be brought up by Bhara Mal's wives. Akbar gave Bhara Mal charge of Agra in 1572 (where all royal ladies were residing) — a signal honour given only to nobles who were either relations or close confidants.

Matrimonial alliances were entered into with the Hadas of Ranthambhor, rulers of Bikaner, and later Jaisalmer — Rao Surjan Hada was placed in charge of Garh-Katanga and rose to rank of 2000. Matrimonial relations were NOT entered with rulers of Sirohi and Banswara who submitted to Akbar later.

Rajputs in imperial service:

• Bhagwan Das of Amber was appointed joint governor of Lahore; Man Singh was governor of Bihar and Bengal.
• Rajput rajas placed in charge of strategic provinces — as high grandees of the empire, they were granted jagirs in addition to their hereditary kingdoms, augmenting their resources.

Policy of Religious Toleration

• In 1564, Akbar abolished the jizyah — the poll tax non-Muslims were required to pay in a Muslim state. Although not a heavy tax, it made a distinction between subject and subject.
• He had earlier abolished the pilgrim-tax on bathing at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc.
• Abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam.
• Gave complete religious freedom to his Hindu wives.
• Gave an honoured place to their parents and relations in the nobility.

Mewar and Rana Pratap

The only Rajput state that stubbornly refused to accept Mughal suzerainty was Mewar. Although Chittor and the plain area around it had come under Mughal domination after 1568, Udaipur and the hilly area forming the larger part of Mewar remained under the Rana.

In 1572, Rana Pratap succeeded Rana Udai Singh. A series of embassies were sent by Akbar to persuade him to accept Mughal suzerainty — led successively by Man Singh, Bhagwan Das, and Raja Todar Mal. The Rana received embassies courteously but was not prepared to accept Akbar's demand for tendering personal homage. The Mughals also wanted to keep hold of Chittor.

Battle of Haldighati (1576): Early in 1576, Akbar moved to Ajmer and deputed Raja Man Singh with a force of 5,000 to lead the campaign against Rana Pratap. In anticipation, the Rana devastated the entire territory up to Chittor — Mughal forces might get no food or fodder. He also fortified all passes in the hills. A furious battle was waged at Haldighati — a narrow defile leading to Kumbhalgarh (then the Rana's capital). The Rana's force was 3,000. Apart from selected Rajput forces, the Rana's van was led by Hakim Khan Sur with his Afghan contingent.

Thus the battle of Haldighati was not a struggle between Hindus and Muslims, or between Indians and foreigners — a small force of Bhils whom the Rana had befriended was also present.

The onslaught by the Rajputs and Afghans threw the Mughal force into disarray. But rumours that Akbar had arrived in person rallied them; with fresh Mughal reinforcements, the tide turned against the Rajputs. The Rana escaped. Mughal forces were too tired to pursue him, but they advanced through the pass and occupied Gogunda (a strong point the Rana had evacuated earlier).

Haldighati was the last time the Rana engaged in a pitched battle with the Mughals. Henceforth he resorted to guerrilla warfare, going great hardships. Thanks to support of Bhil chiefs, he continued his defiance. The Mughal pressure relaxed after 1579 due to serious revolts in Bihar and Bengal. Akbar moved to Lahore in 1585 to watch the north-west situation. No Mughal expedition was sent against Rana Pratap after 1585. Taking advantage, Rana Pratap recovered many of his territories including Kumbhalgarh and areas near Chittor — but could not recover Chittor itself. He built a new capital, Chavand (near modern Dungarpur). He died in 1597 at the young age of 51, from an internal injury incurred while trying to draw a stiff bow.

Significance of Akbar's Rajput policy:

• The alliance secured the services of the bravest warriors in India.
• Steadfast Rajput loyalty became an important factor in the consolidation and expansion of the empire.
• The alliance ensured peace in Rajasthan and enabled the Rajputs to serve in far-flung parts of the empire without worrying about the safety of their homelands.
• By allowing a large measure of autonomy to the Rajput rajas, Akbar established an empire which those Rajput rajas did not consider harmful to their best interests.
• Rana Pratap's defiance constitutes a glorious saga of Rajput valour and the spirit of sacrifice for cherished principles — his methods of guerrilla warfare were later elaborated further by Malik Ambar (the Deccani general) and by Shivaji.

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The 1579–81 Rebellions

Akbar's new administrative system implied tightening of administrative machinery, greater control over the nobles, and more regard to the interests of the common people. It was not to the liking of many nobles. Sentiments of regional independence were still strong in Gujarat, Bengal, and Bihar — all with long traditions of forming separate kingdoms. Rana Pratap's struggle for freedom was continuing apace.

The most serious rebellion was in Bengal and Bihar (extending to Jaunpur). Main cause: strict enforcement of the dagh system (branding of horses of jagirdars) and strict accounting of their income. The discontent was fanned by some religious divines unhappy at Akbar's liberal views and at his policy of resuming the large revenue-free grants obtained by them (sometimes illegally).

Akbar's half-brother, Mirza Hakim (ruler of Kabul), abetted the rebellion and held out the hope of invading the Punjab. A large number of Afghans in the eastern parts were sullen at the loss of Afghan power and were ever ready to join a rebellion. A religious divine issued a fatwa calling on the faithful to take the field against Akbar.

Akbar's response:

• Despatched a force under Todar Mal against Bihar and Bengal.
• Another force under Raja Man Singh to check the expected attack by Mirza Hakim.
• Todar Mal proceeded with great vigour and tact, and brought the situation in the east under control before Mirza Hakim's invasion took place.
• Mirza Hakim advanced on Lahore with 15,000 horses but could not take the city due to stout defence by Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das.
• Akbar marched on Lahore with a well-disciplined force of 50,000 horses; Mirza Hakim had no option but to beat a hasty retreat.
• Akbar crowned his success by marching to Kabul (1581) — the first time an Indian ruler had entered this historic town since Babur's time. Since Mirza Hakim refused to accept Akbar's suzerainty or come to pay personal allegiance, and Indian nobles and soldiers were becoming restive, Akbar handed over Kabul to his sister before returning to India — symbolic of Akbar's broad-mindedness and liberalism. After Mirza Hakim died due to excessive drinking (leaving Kabul in a state of disturbance), Akbar ordered Man Singh to march to Kabul and himself moved to attack on the river Indus.

Consolidation of the North-West and Kashmir

• Two major contributions of Akbar: conquest of Sindh (1590) — opened Punjab for trade down the river Indus; expeditions against Kashmir (1586), against Baluchistan — the whole of Kashmir including Ladakh and Baltistan (called Tibet Khurd and Tibet Buzurg) came under Mughal domination.
• Akbar stayed at Lahore till 1598 when death of Abdullah Khan Uzbek finally removed the threat from the side of the Uzbeks.

Deccan

• After settling north-west affairs, Akbar turned his attention towards the east and west, including the Deccan.
• Orissa was conquered by Raja Man Singh (Mughal governor of Bengal) who also conquered Cooch-Bihar and parts of east Bengal including Dacca.
• Mirza Aziz Koka (foster-brother of Akbar) conquered Kathiawar in the west.
• Khan-i-Khanan Munim Khan was deputed to the Deccan along with Prince Murad.
• By the turn of the century, Mughal control had been extended up to Ahmadnagar, bringing the Mughals into direct contact with the Marathas for the first time.
• Thus the political integration of north India had been achieved by the turn of the century, and the Mughals had started the penetration of the Deccan.

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Evolution of Religious Ideas

From the beginning, Akbar was deeply interested in religion and philosophy. He was initially an orthodox Muslim who paid great deference to the leading qazi, Abdun Nabi Khan (who held the post of sadr-us-sadur and on one occasion even carried his slippers for him). By the time Akbar reached adulthood, however, mysticism — being preached throughout the country — began to influence him. He spent whole nights in thoughts of God, sat many a morning alone in prayer and contemplation on a large flat stone near his palace in Agra.

He gradually turned away from the path of narrow orthodoxy. He abolished the jizyah and the pilgrim-tax; abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war.

The Ibadat Khana (1575): Akbar built a hall called the Ibadat Khana (Hall of Prayer) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri. He called selected theologians, mystics, and courtiers known for their scholarship and intellectual attainments. He discussed religious and spiritual topics. He frequently said: "My sole object, oh wise mullahs, is to ascertain truth, to find out and disclose the principles of genuine religion."

However, the mullahs wrangled, shouted, and abused each other even in the presence of the emperor. Their behaviour disgusted Akbar and further alienated him from the mullahs.

At this stage (after 1578), Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions — Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains, even atheists. Issues on which all Muslims were agreed — such as whether the Quran was the last revealed book and Muhammad its prophet, resurrection, the nature of God — began to be debated. This horrified the theologians; all kinds of rumours began to circulate about Akbar's desire to forsake Islam.

The Mahzar (Declaration) of 1579: Akbar issued a Declaration (mahzar) which asserted that if there were conflicting views among those (mujtahids) considered fit to interpret the Quran, Akbar — being "a most just and wise king" and his rank being higher in the eyes of God than of the mujtahids — was entitled to choose any one of the interpretations which would be of "benefit to the nation and in the interests of good order." Further, if Akbar issued a new order in conformity with the Quran and calculated to benefit the nation, all should be bound by it.

The Declaration which was signed by leading ulamas has been wrongly called a "Decree of Infallibility". Akbar claimed the right to choose only when there was a difference of opinion among those qualified to interpret the Quran. At a time of bloody conflicts between Shias, Sunnis, and Mahdawis in different parts of the country, Akbar wanted the widest religious toleration. There is little doubt that the mahzar had a salutary effect in stabilising the religious situation in the Empire.

However, the debates in the Ibadat Khana had not led to a better understanding between different religions, but to greater bitterness — as each religion denounced the other. Hence in 1582, Akbar discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana.

The Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi): Akbar invited Purushottam and Devi to expound the doctrines of Hinduism, Maharji Rana to explain the doctrines of Zoroastrianism. He met Portuguese priests; sent an embassy to Goa requesting them to send two learned missionaries. The Portuguese sent Aquaviva and Monserrate who remained at Akbar's court for almost three years but their hope of converting Akbar to Christianity never had any basis. Akbar also came into touch with the Jains — the leading Jain saint of Kathiawar, Hira Vijaya Suri, spent a couple of years at Akbar's court.

Contacts with leaders of various religions, and meetings with Sufi saints and yogis, convinced Akbar that all religions had a number of good points which were obscured in the heat of controversy. He felt that if the good points of various religions were emphasised, an atmosphere of harmony and amity would prevail. Behind all the multiplicity of names and forms, there was but one God.

As Badayuni observed: "There grew gradually as the outline of a stone, the conviction in his heart that there were some sensible men in all religions. If some true knowledge was thus everywhere to be found, why should truth be confined to one religion?"

Badayuni asserts that as a result, Akbar gradually turned away from Islam and set up a new religion compounded of many existing religions — Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, etc. However, modern historians are not inclined to accept this view and think Badayuni has exaggerated. There is little evidence to prove that Akbar intended or actually promulgated a new religion.

The word used by Abul Fazl and Badayuni for the so-called new path was tauhid-i-Ilahi — literally meaning "Divine Monotheism". The word Din or faith was not applied to it till 80 years later. The tauhid-i-Ilahi was really an order of the Sufistic type. Those willing to join and those whom the emperor approved were allowed to become members. Sunday was fixed as the day for initiation. The novice placed his head at the feet of the emperor who raised him up and gave him the formula called shast in the Sufi language — he was to repeat and concentrate upon it. This contained Akbar's favourite motto: "Allah-o-Akbar" (God is Great). The initiates were to abstain from meat as far as possible, at least in the month of their birth, give a sumptuous feast and give alms on their birthday. There were no sacred books or scriptures, no priestly class, no place of worship or rituals and ceremonies, except the initiation.

Badayuni says the members had four grades of devotion: sacrifice of property, life, honour, and religion — similar to the grades a Sufi passed.

Akbar did not use force nor was money used for making disciples. In fact, many leading Hindu nobles except Birbal declined to join. The number of persons who actually joined the order was small — many of them consisting of personal favourites of Akbar.

The tauhid-i-Ilahi virtually died with Akbar. The practice of giving a shast to the initiates was continued for some time by Jahangir and then discontinued.

The Concept of Sulh-kul

Akbar tried to emphasise the concept of sulh-kul (peace to all) — peace and harmony among religions — in other ways as well. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. Thus the Singhan Battisi, the Atharva-Veda, and the Bible were taken up first for translation; followed by the Mahabharata, the Gita, and the Ramayana; many others including the Pancha tantra and works of geography were also translated. The Quran was also translated, perhaps for the first time.

According to Abul Fazl, Akbar's biographer, the office of a true ruler was a very responsible one which depended on divine illumination (Farr-i-izadi). Hence, no one could stand between God and a true ruler. A true ruler was distinguished by a paternal love towards his subjects without distinction of sect or creed, a large heart so that the wishes of great and small are attended to, prayer and devotion, and a daily increasing trust in God as the real ruler. It was also the duty of the ruler to maintain equilibrium in society by not allowing people of one rank or profession to interfere in the duties and obligations of another. All these together constituted what has been called the policy of sulh-kul or peace to all.

Akbar's liberal principles of the empire were strengthened by bringing able Hindus into the nobility. While most of these were Rajput rajas, many of whom entered matrimonial relations with Akbar, mansabs were given to others also on the basis of their competence. Among the ablest and most well-known were Todar Mal (expert in revenue affairs who rose to the post of diwan) and Birbal (who was a favourite of the emperor and the subject of many popular stories).

Social Reforms

• Stopped sati — the burning of a widow, unless she herself, of her own free will, persistently desired it. Widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all.
• Widow remarriage was legalised.
• Akbar was against anyone having more than one wife unless the first wife was barren.
• Age of marriage raised to 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
• Sale of wines and spirits was restricted.
• Revised the educational syllabus — laying more emphasis on moral education, mathematics, and secular subjects such as agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc.
• Gave patronage to artists, poets, painters, and musicians — his court became famous for the galaxy of famous people or the navaratna.
• Set up a big translation department.
• Stopped sati at Chittor — the first and last time Akbar indulged in such carnage.

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• GS Paper I — Medieval History: This topic is one of the most comprehensively tested UPSC chapters covering administration, military organisation, religious policy, and territorial expansion.
• State and Religion: Akbar's sulh-kul concept, the Din-i-Ilahi, the Mahzar of 1579, and his abolition of jizyah all represent a systematic attempt to build a secular, inclusive state — a direct predecessor to the constitutional debates on secularism in modern India.
• Continuity vs. Change: Akbar continued Sher Shah's revenue systems (zabti) but refined them (dahsala); he continued the mansabdari framework but made it systematically inclusive. This pattern of adaptation, not revolution, characterises Mughal administrative genius.
• Centre-Periphery Relations: The Rajput policy represents the classic Mughal approach to managing regional powers — co-option through matrimonial alliance and military participation rather than coercive assimilation. Rana Pratap's resistance represents the limits of this approach.
• Social Reform and Modernism: Akbar's social reforms (stopping sati, widow remarriage, age of marriage) prefigure 19th-century social reform movements. His educational reforms — introducing secular subjects — anticipate the modern educational vision.
• Interlink: Akbar's mansabdari system ↔ Todar Mal's land revenue reform ↔ Sher Shah's earlier system. Rajput policy ↔ Haldighati ↔ Rana Pratap's guerrilla warfare ↔ Shivaji's later guerrilla tactics. Din-i-Ilahi ↔ Bhakti movement's influence ↔ sulh-kul concept ↔ modern secularism.

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1. Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Hemu was NOT killed by Mughal arrows from a distance — an arrow struck him IN THE EYE causing him to faint; he was then captured and executed. Do not say he was killed in battle by arrows.
2. Bairam Khan's assassination: He was NOT assassinated by Akbar's order — he was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan who bore him a personal grudge, while on his way to Mecca.
3. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: He was the son of Bairam Khan, NOT a son of Akbar. Akbar married Bairam Khan's widow and brought up the child as his own son.
4. Adham Khan: He was the son of Akbar's foster-mother Maham Anaga, NOT a son or brother of Akbar.
5. Dahsala vs. Todar Mal's Bandobast: The dahsala system is associated with Raja Todar Mal and is sometimes called Todar Mal's bandobast. But Todar Mal was one of a TEAM of brilliant revenue officials — not the sole inventor. He first served under Sher Shah.
6. Dahsala is NOT a ten-year settlement: The dahsala was based on the average of the last ten years' prices and produce, but it was NOT a permanent ten-year settlement like the Permanent Settlement of 1793. The state retained the right to modify it.
7. The Mahzar of 1579 is NOT a 'Decree of Infallibility': This is a common UPSC trap. The Mahzar only claimed the right to choose among competing interpretations of the Quran when mujtahids disagreed — it was NOT a blanket claim of infallibility.
8. Din-i-Ilahi was NOT a new religion: Modern historians (and Satish Chandra) emphasise that Badayuni's assertion that Akbar founded a new religion is exaggerated. The tauhid-i-Ilahi was really an order of the Sufistic type, NOT a formally promulgated religion. The word Din was applied to it only 80 years later.
9. Ibadat Khana: Built at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575; initially only for Muslims, then opened to all religions after 1578; discontinued the debates (NOT the Ibadat Khana itself) in 1582.
10. NOT simply a Hindu-Muslim conflict — Hakim Khan Sur (an Afghan Muslim) led the Rana's van; a force of Bhils also supported the Rana; Man Singh (a Hindu Rajput) led the Mughal forces. The battle is thus not a straightforward 'India vs. foreign invader' narrative.

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• Akbar born: Amarkot (1542); crowned Kalanaur (1556) at 13 years and 4 months.
• Panipat II (5 Nov 1556): Hemu vs. Bairam Khan's Mughals; Hemu hit by arrow in eye, captured, executed.
• Bairam Khan's regency: 1556–60; dismissed via farman; assassinated near Ahmadabad.
• Uzbek rebellions: 1561–67; routed completely in 1567; Uzbek leaders killed.
• Malwa (1561): Baz Bahadur defeated by Adham Khan; Rupmati committed suicide; Baz Bahadur later enrolled as mansabdar (rank 2000).
• Garh-Katanga: Queen Durgavati stabbed herself; Asaf Khan plundered; Akbar restored it to Chandra Shah.
• Gujarat (1572): Akbar first saw the sea at Cambay; reconquered in 9-day dash from Agra (1573) with 3000 men.
• Bengal: Daud Khan defeated and executed 1576 — last Afghan kingdom in north India ended.
• Rajput policy: matrimonial alliances + military participation + religious tolerance + autonomy.
• Bhara Mal's daughter (Harka Bai) married Akbar (1562); Bhagwan Das rank 5000; Man Singh rank 7000.
• Jizyah abolished: 1564. Pilgrim-tax abolished: before 1562.
• Haldighati (1576): Man Singh led Mughals; Hakim Khan Sur led Rana's van; Rana used guerrilla warfare after.
• Rana Pratap died 1597, aged 51; last capital Chavand.
• Dahsala system (1580): average produce + average 10-year prices; state share = one-third; stated in cash per bigha; zabti system; associated with Todar Mal.
• Land types: Polaj (always cultivated), Parati (fallow), Chachar (fallow 2–3 years), Banjar (fallow 3+ years).
• Mansab: Zat (personal status + salary) + Sawar (cavalrymen to maintain). Lowest rank: 10; highest: 5000 (later 7000). Three categories per rank. 10-20 rule for horses. Dagh + chehra system.
• 12 Subas in 1580. Key officers per suba: subadar, diwan, bakhshi, sadr, qazi, waqia-navis.
• Central departments: Diwan (revenue/diwan-i-ala), Mir Bakhshi (military/intelligence), Mir Saman (household), Chief Qazi (judicial).
• Ibadat Khana: built 1575, Fatehpur Sikri; opened to all religions after 1578; debates discontinued 1582.
• Mahzar (1579): NOT Decree of Infallibility; only right to choose among competing Quranic interpretations.
• Din-i-Ilahi / Tauhid-i-Ilahi: Sufistic order, not a new religion; 'Allah-o-Akbar' motto; four grades of devotion; died with Akbar.