Central Asian Contacts and Their Results

The collapse of Maurya imperial authority after 232 BCE left north-western India vulnerable. In eastern India, central India, and the Deccan, native successors — Sungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas — filled the vacuum. But in north-western India, a series of Central Asian dynasties swept in one after another from about 200 BCE onwards. The weakness of the Seleucid Empire in Bactria and Parthia, combined with Scythian pressure from the steppes and the construction of the Chinese Great Wall (which redirected Scythian energy westward and southward), set off a chain reaction of invasions into India. The Maurya successors were too weak to resist this tide.

This period, stretching to roughly 300 CE, is notable not for a pan-Indian empire but for its dense, transformative cultural contacts — in art, religion, coinage, trade, politics, and science.

---

---

Origins and Entry

The Indo-Greeks ruled Bactria (south of the Oxus river, covering north Afghanistan). Growing Scythian pressure made it impossible for later Greek rulers to hold Bactria; pushed out, they crossed the Hindukush into India. Invasions began around 200 BCE, with different Greek dynasties sometimes ruling in parallel.

Extent and Famous Ruler

In the early second century BCE, the Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of north-western India — an area larger than what Alexander had conquered. They reportedly pushed as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra, but failed to establish united rule.

The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165–145 BCE), also known as Milinda. His capital was at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab. He invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab and was converted to Buddhism by the monk Nagasena (also called Nagarjuna). Their philosophical dialogue was recorded in Milinda Panho (The Questions of Milinda), an important source for the cultural history of this period.

Significance

• First rulers in India to issue coins definitively attributed to individual kings — unlike the earlier anonymous punch-marked coins.
• First to issue gold coins in India (later increased under Kushans).
• Introduced Hellenistic art features on the north-west frontier, giving rise to Gandhara art.

---

Entry and Branches

The Sakas (Scythians) followed the Greeks and controlled a far larger part of India. There were five branches of the Sakas with seats of power across India and Afghanistan:

1. Afghanistan
2. Punjab (capital: Taxila)
3. Mathura (ruled for about two centuries)
4. Western India (ruled till the 4th century CE)
5. Upper Deccan

Resistance: Vikramaditya and the Vikrama Samvat

In about 58 BCE, a king of Ujjain effectively fought against the Sakas and drove them out. He called himself Vikramaditya, and the Vikrama Samvat era is reckoned from this victory in 58 BCE. This title became so coveted that as many as 14 Vikramadityas are recorded in Indian history; the title remained fashionable with Indian kings till the 12th century CE, especially in western India and the western Deccan.

Most Famous Saka Ruler

Rudradaman I (AD 130–150) ruled not only Sindh, Kutch, and Gujarat but had also recovered territories from the Satavahanas — including Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa, and Kathiawar. He is historically notable for:

• Undertaking repairs to the Sudarshana lake in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar — a lake as old as Maurya times, used for irrigation.
• Issuing the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit (as a foreigner settled in India).

Assimilation

Although Sakas established rule in different parts, only those in western India held power for considerable time (about four centuries). They became completely Indianized; Manu's lawgiver text rationalized their status as kshatriyas who had fallen from their duties (fallen kshatriyas), making them second-class kshatriyas. In no other period of ancient Indian history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale.

---

Originally from Iran, the Parthians moved to India after the Sakas. In ancient Sanskrit texts, Sakas and Parthians are jointly mentioned as Saka-Pahlavas. They ruled only a small portion of north-western India in the first century CE.

The most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes, during whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity. Like the Sakas before them, the Parthians became an integral part of Indian polity and society.

---

Origins

The Kushans, also called Yuechis or Tocharians, were one of five clans of the nomadic Yuechi tribe living in north Central Asia near China. They first occupied Bactria (displacing the Sakas), moved to the Kabul valley, seized Gandhara, crossed the Hindukush replacing Greek and Parthian rule, and finally set up authority over the lower Indus basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin.

At their peak, the Kushan empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan (Central Asia) to Varanasi (UP). This created a unique opportunity for the commingling of peoples and cultures across five modern countries.

Two Dynasties

First dynasty — House of Kadphises:

• Kadphises I: issued coins south of the Hindukush; minted coppers imitating Roman coins.
• Kadphises II: issued a large number of gold coins; spread his kingdom east of the Indus.

Second dynasty — House of Kanishka: Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler. Known to history for two reasons:

1. He started an era in AD 78 — now known as the Saka era, used by the Government of India.
2. He was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism — held a Buddhist council in Kashmir to finalize Mahayana doctrines, set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha, and patronized art and Sanskrit literature.

Kanishka's second capital in India was Purushapura (Peshawar), where he built a monastery and a huge stupa. Kushan coins, inscriptions, and structures found at Mathura show it was their second capital. The Mathura Museum today holds the largest collection of Kushan sculptures in India.

Kushan successors ruled in north-western India till about AD 230, with some bearing Indian names like Vasudeva. The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and west of the Indus was supplanted by the Sassanian power (from Iran) in the mid-3rd century AD.

---

1. Structures and Pottery

The Saka-Kushan phase saw distinct advances in building: excavations reveal several layers of structures, sometimes more than half a dozen at various north Indian sites. The period is marked by:

• Use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for roofing
• Use of surkhi (brick-dust mortar)
• Construction of brick-wells
• Typical red ware pottery — both plain and polished, with distinctive sprinklers and spouted channels. Red pottery techniques were widely known in Central Asia (found even in Farghana, at the Kushan cultural periphery).

2. Trade and Technology

The Sakas and Kushans settled permanently in India and fully identified with its culture. Since they lacked their own script, language, or religion, they adopted Indian elements. They contributed:

• Better cavalry and widespread use of the riding horse
• Common use of reins and saddles (visible in Buddhist sculptures, 2nd–3rd century AD)
• Turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coat — items still worn by Afghans and Punjabis; the sherwani is a successor of the long coat
• Cap, helmet, and boots for warriors
• The stirrup (toe-stirrup of rope), which facilitated cavalry movement and military dominance
• When this military technology spread to the rest of the country, dependent princes used it against their former conquerors

The Silk Route: The Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which began in China and passed through their empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia (the Roman empire's eastern Mediterranean zone). Toll revenue from traders made the Kushans prosperous. The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale. India also received large amounts of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia, and possibly through trade with the Roman empire.

3. Polity

Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes, leading to feudatory organization. Key political innovations:

• King of kings (maharajadhiraja): The Kushans adopted this pompous title to indicate supremacy over small princes.
• Divine origin of kingship: Kushan kings called themselves sons of god — a title borrowed from the Chinese concept of the son of heaven. This reinforced the idea of divine kingship in India. (Hindu lawgiver Manu had already asked people to respect the king even if he is a child, as he is a god in human form.)
• Satrap system: The empire was divided into satrapies, each under a satrap. Curious practices like hereditary dual rule (father and son ruling the same kingdom simultaneously) reduced centralization.
• Military governorship: Introduced by the Greeks — military governors (strategos) were appointed to maintain foreign rulers' power over conquered peoples.

4. Religion

• Several foreign rulers converted to Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu). The Greek ambassador Heliodorus erected a pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisa (in Madhya Pradesh).
• The famous Greek king Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
• Kushan rulers like Vasudeva worshipped Vishnu (Vasudeva = synonym for Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu). Kushan rulers also worshipped Siva; images of both Siva and the Buddha appear on Kushan coins.

5. Origin of Mahayana Buddhism

Original Buddhism was too puritanical and abstract for foreigners. They wanted something concrete, intelligible, and capable of satisfying religious cravings. This demand gave rise to Mahayana (the Great Wheel) — a new form of Buddhism in which the image of the Buddha began to be worshipped. Those who did not subscribe to this sect were called followers of the Hinayana (Small Wheel). Kanishka became the great patron of Mahayana and convened a council in Kashmir where Buddhist teachings were engraved on copper sheets deposited under a stupa.

6. Gandhara Art

Foreign princes were enthusiastic patrons of Indian art and literature. The Kushan empire brought together masons and artisans trained in different schools and countries. Indian craftsmen came into contact with Greeks and Romans especially in Gandhara (north-western frontier of India). This gave rise to a new kind of art — Gandhara art — in which images of the Buddha were made in the Graeco-Roman style (hair fashioned in Graeco-Roman manner).

The influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura, primarily a centre of indigenous art. Mathura produced beautiful Buddha images and is also famous for the headless erect statue of Kanishka (name inscribed on its lower part). Mathura also produced stone images of Vardhamana Mahavira. Products made of red sandstone are found even outside Mathura.

During the same period, beautiful Buddhist caves were constructed in Maharashtra. Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became great centres of Buddhist art.

7. Literature and Learning

Foreign princes patronized and cultivated Sanskrit literature. The earliest specimen of kavya style is found in Rudradaman's inscription in Kathiawar (AD 150). From this point, inscriptions began to be composed in chaste Sanskrit, although Prakrit continued till the 4th century CE.

Great creative writers like Asvaghosha enjoyed Kushan patronage. He wrote:

• Buddhacharita — biography of the Buddha
• Saundarananda — a fine example of Sanskrit kavya

Mahayana progress led to numerous avadanas composed in Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit, including the Mahavastu and the Divyavadana.

Foreigners also contributed to Indian theatre by introducing the use of the curtain. Borrowed from the Greeks, it came to be known as yavanika — derived from yavana (a sanskritized form of Ionian, a branch of Greeks). Later, yavana came to denote all foreigners.

8. Science and Technology

• Astronomy and astrology: Indian astronomy profited from Greek contact. Greek terms about planetary movement entered Sanskrit. Indian astrology was influenced by Greek ideas; the term horasastra (Sanskrit for astrology) derived from the Greek horoscope.
• Medicine, botany, chemistry: Indians owed nothing striking to the Greeks here — Charaka and Susruta had already dealt comprehensively with these subjects. The Charakasamhita lists numerous plants and herbs used for preparing drugs.
• Technology: The Kushan copper coins in India were imitations of Roman coins. Gold coins in India were struck by the Kushans in imitation of Roman gold coins. Embassies were exchanged between Indian and Roman kings — sent to Augustus in AD 27–28 and to Trajan in AD 110–20. Glass-making made remarkable progress in this period, especially influenced by foreign ideas and practices.

---

• GS Paper I — Ancient History: Central Asian contacts illustrate how foreign invasions catalysed cultural synthesis rather than destruction — a recurring pattern in Indian civilization.
• Continuity vs. Change: The satrap system, divine kingship, and feudatory organization introduced by Central Asians influenced the Gupta-era and post-Gupta political structures.
• Art and Architecture: Gandhara and Mathura schools are foundational to understanding Indian Buddhist art, directly relevant to GS Paper I (Art and Culture).
• Trade and Economy: The Silk Route and Roman trade connections in this period set the template for India's ancient global economic engagement — relevant to questions on ancient Indian economy.
• Religion: The origin of Mahayana Buddhism under foreign stimulus is a key theme connecting religion, foreign contact, and social transformation.
• Interlinks: Central Asian Contacts ↔ Gandhara Art ↔ Mahayana Buddhism ↔ Silk Route ↔ Kushan Economy ↔ Decline of Mauryas

---

1. Menander ≠ converted by Nagarjuna the philosopher: Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena (also called Nagarjuna — a different figure from the famous Mahayana philosopher Nagarjuna who was a 2nd century CE thinker).
2. Saka era vs. Vikrama Samvat: Vikrama Samvat = 58 BCE (victory of Vikramaditya over Sakas). Saka era = AD 78 (started by Kanishka the Kushan, NOT a Saka king). The Government of India uses the Saka era, not the Vikrama Samvat.
3. Kanishka = Kushan, NOT Saka: Kanishka started the era now called the Saka era, but he was a Kushan ruler. The name is confusing — do not classify him as a Saka.
4. Rudradaman = Saka, NOT Kushan: Rudradaman I (AD 130–150) was the most famous Saka ruler, famous for the Sudarshana lake repairs and the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
5. Indo-Greeks were NOT the first to use gold coins broadly: They were the first to issue gold coins in India, but it was the Kushans who increased gold coins significantly and issued them on a wide scale.
6. Milinda Panho confusion: It is a record of dialogue between Menander (Milinda) and Nagasena — it is a Buddhist text, not a political chronicle or Arthashastra-type text.
7. Heliodorus pillar ≠ Buddhist: Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador who erected a pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisa — not Buddha. This is a classic distractor.
8. Yavanika = curtain, not the script: Yavanika = theatrical curtain (derived from yavana/Greek). The script used by Sakas in early longer inscriptions was Kharosthi (written right to left), with Prakrit as the language.
9. Mahayana origin: Mahayana arose due to — NOT due to Asoka or any Indian reformer. Kanishka was its great Kushan patron.

---

• Period of Central Asian contacts: c. 200 BCE to AD 300
• Indo-Greeks: first from Central Asia to invade India; first to issue coins attributable to kings; first gold coins
• Most famous Indo-Greek ruler: Menander (Milinda); capital Sakala (Sialkot); converted to Buddhism by Nagasena
• Milinda Panho = questions of Milinda (Buddhist text)
• Five branches of Sakas across India and Afghanistan
• Vikrama Samvat = 58 BCE (Ujjain king's victory over Sakas)
• Most famous Saka ruler: Rudradaman I; first long Sanskrit inscription; repaired Sudarshana lake
• Parthian king Gondophernes — St. Thomas connection
• Kushans = Yuechis/Tocharians; one of five Yuechi clans
• Kanishka: Saka era (AD 78); Buddhist council in Kashmir; Purushapura (Peshawar) capital; patron of Mahayana
• Silk Route: China → Kushan empire → Iran → Roman empire; controlled by Kushans
• Kushans = first to issue gold coins on wide scale in India
• Satrap system + king of kings title + divine kingship = Kushan political innovations
• Gandhara art = Graeco-Roman Buddha images (north-west India)
• Mathura art = indigenous; red sandstone; headless Kanishka statue
• Mahayana Buddhism = Great Wheel; image worship; Kanishka's patron
• Asvaghosha = Kushan period; wrote Buddhacharita and Saundarananda
• Yavanika = curtain from Greeks → Indian theatre
• Horasastra (astrology) derived from Greek horoscope
• Heliodorus pillar near Vidisa = Greek ambassador's tribute to Vishnu