Advent of the Europeans in India

The story of European arrival in India begins not in India but in the shifting geopolitics of 15th-century Europe. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 effectively choked the traditional overland and Red Sea trade routes to India. Arab Muslim intermediaries controlled these routes, earning massive revenues from the spice and luxury goods trade. European powers — hungry for spices, silks, calicoes, and precious stones — were compelled to find a direct sea route to India.

Parallel forces accelerated this quest: the Renaissance spirit of exploration, rapid advances in ship-building and navigation, growing European prosperity that increased demand for oriental goods, and the religious impulse to counter Muslim dominance and spread Christianity. Portugal and Spain emerged as pioneers, aided by Genoese technical knowledge and North European capital.

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Arrival and Early Establishment

Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in May 1498, guided by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid. The Hindu ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin (Samuthiri), gave him a friendly reception. Arab traders, whose monopoly was threatened, were hostile.

Vasco's voyage proved enormously profitable — pepper bought in India could be sold in Europe at ten times the price. This lured further Portuguese expeditions. Pedro Alvarez Cabral (1500) established a factory at Calicut and, after a conflict, bombarded the city and made treaties with Cochin and Cannanore. The trade centres of Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin became the Portuguese commercial axis. Under the pretext of protecting these factories, the Portuguese gradually fortified them.

Key Governors

Francisco De Almeida (1505–09): First Portuguese governor. His strategic vision — known as the Blue Water Policy (cartaze system) — aimed at Portuguese mastery of the Indian Ocean rather than territorial control on land. He defeated the combined Egyptian-Gujarat naval force in 1508, avenging the earlier loss at Diu where his son was killed.

Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–15): The real architect of Portuguese imperial power in the East. He secured strategic control of the Indian Ocean by establishing bases at East Africa, off the Red Sea, at Ormuz, in Malabar, and at Malacca. He captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 — making it "the first bit of Indian territory to be under Europeans since Alexander the Great." He introduced a permit system for other ships, controlled ship-building centres, encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry Indian women, and notably abolished sati in his territories. His treatment of Muslims was, however, ruthlessly hostile.

Nino da Cunha (1529–38): Shifted headquarters from Cochin to Goa in 1530. During his tenure, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat ceded Bassein (1534) and promised Diu to the Portuguese in exchange for help against Mughal emperor Humayun. When Humayun withdrew and relations soured, Bahadur Shah was lured to a Portuguese ship and killed in 1537.

Portuguese Administration

The head was the Viceroy (three-year term). Below him was the Vedor da Fazenda (revenues and fleets). Fortresses were under Captains assisted by 'factors.'

Religious Policy and Relations with Mughals

The Portuguese combined commercial aggression with intense religious zeal — they were intolerant of Muslims and, over time, persecuted Hindus through the Inquisition in Goa. However, Jesuit missionaries made an impression at Akbar's court. Three Jesuit missions visited: 1580 (Aquaviva and Monserrate), 1590, and 1595 (Jerome Xavier and Emanuel Pinheiro). None succeeded in converting Akbar or Jahangir.

Relations with the Mughals deteriorated under Jahangir when the Portuguese committed acts of piracy and captured Mughal ships (1613). Under Shah Jahan, the situation worsened — the Portuguese at Hooghly engaged in slave trade, even seizing slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal. The Mughal siege of Hooghly (June 1632) ended in Portuguese defeat three months later.

Decline of the Portuguese

Multiple factors eroded Portuguese power:

• Emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia, and North India; rise of the Marathas (who captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739)
• Religious persecution generated resentment among Hindus and Muslims alike
• Piracy and corrupt trade practices alienated rulers
• Discovery of Brazil diverted colonial energies westward
• Union of Spain and Portugal (1580–81) dragged Portugal into Spain's wars with England and Holland
• Dutch and English, having learned the sea route, arrived with superior resources
• The Portuguese, first Europeans to come to India, were also the last to leave — Goa, Daman, Diu liberated in 1961

Significance of the Portuguese

• Inaugurated the age of European maritime dominance in Asia
• Introduced cannon-bearing ships — transformed naval warfare
• Pioneered the infantry drilling system later adopted by French, English, Marathas and Sikhs (sepoy armies)
• Introduced crops like tobacco and cashew nut to India
• Promoted cultural exchange — art, music, silverwork at Goa
• Demonstrated that even a small, disciplined European force could defeat larger Indian armies

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Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596. In 1602, the Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC) — the Dutch East India Company — was formed by the States-General of the Netherlands with powers to wage war, conclude treaties, and build forts.

The Dutch established their first Indian factory at Masulipatnam (1605). Other major factories: Pulicat (1609), Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Patna, Nagapatam (1658), Cochin (1663). They captured Nagapatam from the Portuguese and made it their main south Indian stronghold.

Dutch trade focused on: indigo, textiles (Bengal, Gujarat, Coromandel), saltpetre (Bihar), opium and rice (Ganga valley).

Anglo-Dutch rivalry intensified and climaxed at the Amboyna Massacre (1623) where Dutch killed ten Englishmen. A compromise in 1667 had the British withdraw from Indonesia and the Dutch withdraw from India. The Battle of Hooghly (1759) — also called Battle of Bidara (Bedara) — ended Dutch ambitions in India decisively. The Dutch were commercially focused and not interested in empire-building; their primary interest was the Spice Islands of Indonesia.

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Foundation

Inspired by Drake's voyage (1580) and the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), English merchants formed the 'Merchant Adventurers.' On December 31, 1600, Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter to the 'Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies' — a monopoly initially for 15 years, extended indefinitely in 1609.

Early Foothold

• William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's court (1609) but failed to secure a factory at Surat due to Portuguese opposition.
• Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese off Surat (1612) — impressed Jahangir, who granted permission for a factory at Surat (1613) under Thomas Aldworth.
• Sir Thomas Roe (ambassador of James I, 1615–19) secured factories at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach.
• Bombay: Given to Charles II as Portuguese dowry (1662); leased to the Company for 10 pounds annually (1668); made western presidency headquarters (1687).
• Fort St. George, Madras (1639): Francis Day obtained permission from ruler of Chandragiri to build a fortified factory — replaced Masulipatnam as south Indian headquarters.
• Bengal: Shah Shuja (1651) allowed trade at Hooghly for Rs 3,000/year. After conflicts with Mughals, Job Charnock signed a treaty (1690), returning to Sutanuti. Fort William established (1700) — seat of eastern presidency.
• Golden Farman (1632): Sultan of Golconda granted free trade in Golconda ports for 500 pagodas/year.

Farrukhsiyar's Farmans (1717)

An English mission led by John Surman secured three farmans from Emperor Farrukhsiyar — called the 'Magna Carta of the Company':

• Bengal: imports/exports exempted from additional customs; dastaks (passes) permitted; more land around Calcutta rentable
• Hyderabad: existing duty-free privileges retained
• Surat: exempt from all duties for Rs 10,000/year
• Company coins minted at Bombay to have currency throughout Mughal empire

Merger of Companies

After 1688, Whig opposition to the monopoly led to a rival company sending Sir William Norris to Aurangzeb's court. The two companies were amalgamated in 1708 as the 'United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies' — the EIC that ruled India until 1858.

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Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, founded the Compagnie des Indes Orientales in 1664 with a 50-year monopoly on French trade in Indian and Pacific Oceans. Francois Caron established a factory at Surat (1667); Mercara founded one at Masulipatnam (1669); in 1673, the French established a township at Chandernagore.

Pondicherry (1674): Founded by Francois Martin after Sher Khan Lodi (governor of Valikondapuram) granted him a site. It became the nerve centre of French power in India. Other centres: Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, Qasim Bazar.

The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693; restored by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). The French company was reorganised in 1720 as the 'Perpetual Company of the Indies' and flourished under governors Lenoir and Dumas (1720–42).

The Carnatic Wars

Background of Anglo-French Rivalry: Both came for trade but were drawn into Indian politics. Their rivalry mirrored European wars — starting with the Austrian War of Succession and ending with the Seven Years' War. Three Carnatic Wars decided that the English, not the French, would master India.

First Carnatic War (1740–48)

• Cause: Extension of Anglo-French War arising from the Austrian War of Succession in Europe
• Immediate trigger: English navy under Barnet seized French ships; France retaliated by capturing Madras (1746) under Admiral La Bourdonnais
• Significance: Battle of St. Thome — a small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the larger army of Nawab Anwar-ud-din of Carnatic on the banks of the River Adyar. Eye-opener: small disciplined European army could defeat larger Indian forces. Also highlighted importance of naval power.
• End: Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) — Madras returned to English; French got North American territories.

Second Carnatic War (1749–54)

• Background: Death of Nizam-ul-Mulk (1748) and release of Chanda Sahib by Marathas created succession disputes in Hyderabad and Carnatic.
• Alliances: French backed Muzaffar Jang (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic); English backed Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.
• Battle of Ambur (1749): French-allied forces defeated and killed Anwar-ud-din. Muzaffar Jang became Deccan subahdar; Dupleix was appointed governor of Mughal territories south of River Krishna.
• Robert Clive's masterstroke: With only 210 men, Clive attacked and captured Arcot (August 1751), forcing Chanda Sahib to withdraw from Trichinopoly. After a 53-day siege (Sept–Nov), Chanda Sahib failed to retake Arcot. He was later captured and executed.
• Result: Dupleix recalled in 1754; Godeheu succeeded him and concluded a treaty with English — neither side to interfere in native princes' quarrels. French power severely undermined.
• Dupleix's Legacy: First European to interfere systematically in Indian politics; originator of the Subsidiary Alliance system; conferred title of Nawab by Mughal emperor and Muzzaffar Jang.

Third Carnatic War (1758–63)

• Background: Seven Years' War (1756–63) in Europe — Britain and France on opposite sides.
• Course: French under Count de Lally captured English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram (1758). English inflicted heavy losses on French fleet under Admiral D'Ache at Masulipatnam.
• Battle of Wandiwash (January 22, 1760): General Eyre Coote totally routed Count de Lally; Bussy taken prisoner. Pondicherry defended for eight months before Lally surrendered (January 16, 1761). Lally was later executed in France (1766).
• Result: Treaty of Paris (1763) restored French factories in India but banned fortifications — French political power in India ended permanently. English became the sole supreme European power (Dutch already defeated at Bidara in 1759).

Causes for English Success and French Failure

• Company structure: English EIC was a private enterprise with elected directors and empowered shareholders; French company was state-controlled, sluggish in decision-making.
• Naval superiority: Royal Navy (victors of Spanish Armada, Battle of Trafalgar) far superior to French navy; cut off French sea supply lines.
• Three strongholds: English held Calcutta, Bombay and Madras; French had only Pondicherry.
• Commercial priority: English never neglected commercial interests for territorial ambition; French subordinated commerce to politics, causing financial strain.
• Leadership: English had Clive, Lawrence, Eyre Coote; French had only Dupleix.
• Financial innovation: Britain used debt markets (Bank of England) to fund wars; France went bankrupt.
• Industrial Revolution: Started in England early 18th century — spinning Jenny, steam engine, power loom — maintained British technological edge.
• Political stability: Britain had stable government; France experienced revolution (1789) and Napoleonic Wars.
• Lesser religious zeal: Britain less aggressive in spreading Christianity — more acceptable to Indian subjects.

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The Danish East India Company was established in 1616. They founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore (1620) and their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta. Their factories were sold to the British in 1845. The Danes are remembered more for missionary activities than for commerce.

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• GS Paper I — Modern History: The advent of Europeans marks the transition from medieval to modern India; the transformation of trading companies into political powers is a foundational theme of colonialism.
• Colonialism and Nationalism: The Portuguese, Dutch, English and French arrived as traders and became rulers — a pattern that informs the later nationalist critique of colonialism.
• Continuity vs. Change: The Indian Ocean trade had many participants operating on tacit norms before Europeans arrived with cannon-backed monopoly-seeking — a fundamental rupture in the existing order.
• State vs. Private Enterprise: The English EIC's private nature vs. French state-control is a recurring theme in understanding why England succeeded — relevant to debates on governance and economic efficiency.
• Subsidiary Alliance Origins: Dupleix was the originator of the Subsidiary Alliance system — later perfected by Wellesley to expand British power — showing how French innovations were ultimately turned against their inventors.
• Naval Power as Instrument: Almeida's Blue Water Policy foreshadowed the centrality of sea power in colonial conquest — a theme connecting to Mahan's 'influence of sea power on history.'
• Interlinks: Portuguese in India ↔ Mughal relations ↔ decline of Mughal authority; Carnatic Wars ↔ Battle of Plassey ↔ British consolidation; Dupleix's diplomacy ↔ Subsidiary Alliance ↔ British expansion.

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1. Vasco da Gama's pilot: Often confused — it was Abdul Majid (a Gujarati pilot), NOT a Portuguese navigator who guided Vasco from Africa to Calicut.
2. First Portuguese governor: Francisco De Almeida (1505), NOT Albuquerque. Albuquerque came second (1509) but is often called the real 'founder' of Portuguese power — confusing role with title.
3. Blue Water Policy: Associated with Almeida, not Albuquerque. Albuquerque pursued territorial control.
4. Goa captured from: The Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 by Albuquerque — not from a Hindu king and not in 1505.
5. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Divided the non-Christian world between Portugal and Spain — often confused with other treaties. Portugal got rights to the EAST of the line, Spain to the WEST.
6. EIC Charter date: December 31, 1600 — NOT 1599 (that was when the merchants formed their group). Chartered by Queen Elizabeth I, not James I.
7. Sir Thomas Roe vs. William Hawkins: Both visited Jahangir's court but Roe was the official ambassador (1615–19); Hawkins (1609) was not an ambassador but a captain.
8. Farrukhsiyar's Farmans: Issued in 1717, called 'Magna Carta of the Company' — covers Bengal, Gujarat (Surat) AND Hyderabad — candidates often miss one region.
9. Battle of Wandiwash vs. Battle of Plassey: Plassey (1757) ended French/Indian resistance in Bengal context; Wandiwash (1760) ended French challenge as a European rival in India — both are important but for different reasons.
10. Dupleix as originator of Subsidiary Alliance: This is frequently tested — Wellesley perfected it, but Dupleix first practiced it by stationing French troops at Hyderabad at the subahdar's expense.

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• Constantinople fell: 1453 → Arab trade monopoly → Europeans seek sea route
• Bartholomew Dias: Cape of Good Hope, 1487
• Vasco da Gama: Calicut, May 1498; pilot Abdul Majid
• Treaty of Tordesillas: 1494; Portugal East, Spain West
• Almeida: First governor, Blue Water Policy
• Albuquerque: Goa from Bijapur, 1510; abolished sati
• Nino da Cunha: Capital shifted to Goa, 1530
• EIC: Founded December 31, 1600; Queen Elizabeth I
• Dutch VOC: 1602; first Indian factory Masulipatnam, 1605
• Golden Farman: 1632, Golconda
• Fort St. George, Madras: 1639
• French Company: 1664, Colbert, Louis XIV
• Pondicherry: 1674, Francois Martin
• Fort William / Calcutta: 1700
• Farrukhsiyar's Farmans: 1717 = Magna Carta of Company
• First Carnatic War: 1740–48, Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle
• Second Carnatic War: 1749–54, Arcot captured by Clive (1751)
• Third Carnatic War: 1758–63, Battle of Wandiwash (Jan 22, 1760), Eyre Coote vs. de Lally
• Treaty of Paris: — French power ends