Political Parties in India

A political party is an organised group of individuals united by shared political views, working through constitutional means to acquire governmental power and promote national interest. Parties are distinct from pressure groups in that they contest elections, seek to form governments, and are accountable to the electorate.

Across modern democracies, political parties are broadly classified into four ideological categories:

• Reactionary parties — defend old socio-economic and political structures and resist change.
• Conservative parties — seek to preserve the existing order (status quo).
• Liberal parties — favour reform and gradual improvement of existing institutions.
• Radical parties — aim to replace the current order entirely with a new one.

In terms of the left-right spectrum, radical parties occupy the left, liberal parties the centre, and conservative and reactionary parties the right. In India, CPI and CPM represent the left, the Congress centrist positions, and the BJP the right.

Three dominant types of party systems exist globally:

1. One-party system — Only one ruling party is permitted; no opposition is tolerated. Example: former USSR and other communist states of Eastern Europe.
2. Two-party system — Two dominant parties alternate in power. Example: USA (Democratic and Republican) and Britain (Conservative and Labour).
3. Multi-party system — Multiple parties compete, often resulting in coalition governments. Example: France, Switzerland, Italy — and India.

1. Multi-Party System

India's vast geographical size, social diversity, universal adult franchise, and complex political dynamics have produced an extraordinarily large number of parties. On the eve of the 2014 general elections, India had 6 national parties, 47 state parties, and 1,593 registered-but-unrecognised parties — making it the country with the largest number of political parties in the world. The result is frequent hung parliaments and coalition governments at both the Centre and states.

2. One-Dominant Party Era

Despite being a multi-party system, India was effectively dominated by a single party — the Indian National Congress — for decades after independence. Political scientist Rajni Kothari described this as the 'Congress system' or 'one-party dominance system'. This dominance began declining after 1967, with the rise of regional parties and later national competitors like the Janata Party (1977), Janata Dal (1989), and BJP (1991), gradually transforming India into a genuinely competitive multi-party democracy.

3. Absence of Clear Ideological Differentiation

Except for the BJP and the two communist parties (CPI and CPM), most Indian parties lack clearly defined ideologies. Nearly every party formally endorses democracy, secularism, socialism, and Gandhism. In practice, the pursuit of power has replaced ideological commitment, and politics has become issue-based and pragmatic rather than principled.

4. Personality Cult

Indian parties are often built around charismatic leaders rather than programmes or manifestos. Parties tend to be identified with their leader — the Congress with Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi; AIADMK with MG Ramachandran; TDP with NT Rama Rao. Several parties even incorporate their founder's name (e.g., Biju Janata Dal, Congress (I)). This gives rise to the observation that India has political personalities rather than political parties.

5. Grounding in Traditional Social Identities

Unlike Western parties, which are typically formed around socio-economic programmes, many Indian parties draw their base from religion, caste, language, culture, or region. Examples include Shiv Sena, Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, Akali Dal, Bahujan Samaj Party, and the Republican Party of India. Such parties frequently promote communal or sectional interests at the cost of broader public welfare.

6. Rise of Regional Parties

Regional parties have emerged as a defining feature of Indian democracy. Parties like BJD (Odisha), DMK/AIADMK (Tamil Nadu), Akali Dal (Punjab), AGP (Assam), and National Conference (J&K) have governed their respective states. With coalition politics at the Centre becoming the norm, regional parties have acquired significant national influence. A landmark was the TDP emerging as the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha after the 1984 elections.

7. Factions, Defections, and Splits

Factionalism, defections, party splits, mergers, and fragmentation have been chronic features of Indian party life. Post-1967 (after the fourth general elections), political defections became alarmingly common, contributing to governmental instability. The result is multiple splinter groups: two Janata Dals, two TDPs, two DMKs, two Congress factions, three Akali Dals, and three Muslim Leagues — all tracing their origins to the same parent body.

8. Lack of Effective Opposition

A healthy parliamentary democracy requires a strong, unified Opposition to check executive excess and offer an alternative government. India has consistently struggled on this front. Over the decades, the Opposition has remained fragmented, ideologically incoherent, and unable to present a credible and sustained challenge to ruling parties at the national level.

The Election Commission of India registers political parties for electoral purposes and grants recognition as national parties or state parties based on electoral performance. Unrecognised parties are listed as 'registered-unrecognised' parties.

Privileges of Recognised Parties

Recognition confers significant advantages:

• Exclusive allocation of reserved election symbols (nationally for national parties; state-wise for state parties).
• Free broadcast time on state-owned TV and radio.
• Access to electoral rolls.
• Only one proposer required for filing nominations.
• National and state parties may field up to 40 star campaigners; registered-unrecognised parties may field 20. Travel expenses of star campaigners are excluded from candidate election expenditure limits.

Registered-unrecognised parties may only choose from a list of free symbols (as opposed to reserved symbols).

A party qualifies as a national party if it meets any one of the following conditions:

1. Secures 6% of valid votes in four or more states (in a Lok Sabha or state assembly general election) AND wins 4 Lok Sabha seats from any state(s); OR
2. Wins 2% of total Lok Sabha seats (i.e., at least 11 seats), with elected members coming from at least 3 states; OR
3. Is recognised as a state party in 4 or more states.

A party qualifies as a state party in a given state if it meets any one of the following conditions:

1. Secures 6% of valid votes in a state assembly election AND wins 2 assembly seats in that state; OR
2. Secures 6% of valid votes in a Lok Sabha election from that state AND wins 1 Lok Sabha seat from that state; OR
3. Wins 3% of assembly seats or 3 seats, whichever is greater; OR
4. Wins 1 Lok Sabha seat for every 25 assembly seats allotted to the state; OR
5. Secures 8% of total valid votes in a state election (Lok Sabha or assembly) — this condition was added in 2011.

Indian parties can be classified on the following axes:

• National and Secular — subdivided into ideologically committed (BJP on the right; CPI, CPM on the left) and non-committed (Congress).
• Regional — parties whose electoral base is confined to a specific state or region.
• Local and Communitarian — e.g., Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, Mizo National Front, Gorkha League.
• Adhoc — formed for specific political circumstances (e.g., Kerala Congress, Rashtriya Lok Dal).
• Fringe — parties with negligible electoral footprint (e.g., Hindu Maha Sabha, Praja Socialist Party).

Within regional parties, a further distinction exists between communal regional parties (e.g., Shiv Sena, Akali Dal, Muslim League, AIADMK) and non-communal regional parties (e.g., TDP, Asom Gana Parishad, National Conference).

• Rajni Kothari's 'Congress system' concept is frequently tested.
• The three conditions for national party recognition and five for state party recognition are high-yield facts.
• Star campaigner limits (40 for recognised parties, 20 for unrecognised) are a common trap question.
• The 2011 addition of the 8% votes criterion for state party recognition is often overlooked.
• Know the symbols of all 7 national parties (as of 2016) — these appear in matching-type questions.
• The distinction between reserved symbols and free symbols is conceptually important.
• Defections becoming prominent after the fourth general elections (1967) is a key historical anchor.