Indian Paintings: Pre-historic to Modern and Folk Traditions

Indian painting spans over 30,000 years — from prehistoric ochre pigments on quartzite cave walls to the miniature courts of Mughal emperors and the Swadeshi canvases of Bengal. UPSC regularly tests region–school pairing, distinguishing features of styles, patronage, and key painters/manuscripts. This topic demands precision in matching details.

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Codified by Vatsyayana in Kamasutra (3rd century AD); marks the real beginning of the science of painting in India.

Other early painting types (from Brahmanical/Buddhist literature):

• Lepya Chitra: Mythological representations on textiles.
• Lekhya Chitra: Line drawings and sketches.
• Dhuli Chitra, Pata Chitra: Other early types.

Styles from Mudrarakshasa (play by Vishakhadutta):

• Cauka Pitaka: Isolated framed drawings.
• Dighala Pitaka: Long scrolls of paintings.
• Yama Pitaka: Isolated paintings.

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Rock engravings are called Petroglyphs. Three major phases at Bhimbetka (Vindhya ranges, south of Bhopal, MP):

Bhimbetka — Key Facts

• Discovered by V.S. Wakankar in 1957–58.
• 500+ rock paintings; oldest estimated at 30,000 years.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site (2003).
• Continuous habitation from 100,000 BC to 1000 AD.
• Most paintings belong to the Mesolithic age.
• Colours: red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow, green. Haematite ores used for red.

Other pre-historic sites: Narsinghgarh (MP), Jogimara Caves (Surguja, Chhattisgarh — dated ~1000 BCE), Chitwa Dongri (Durg district — Chinese figure riding donkey, dragons).

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Works on walls or solid structures; existed 10th century BC–10th century AD. Unique for sheer size — cannot be contained on paper.

Key Mural Sites

Ajanta Cave Paintings — Key Details

• Carved in 4th century AD from volcanic rocks.
• Murals in caves 9 & 10 = Sunga period; rest = Gupta period. Most recent = Caves 1 & 2.
• Technique: Three-layer fresco — clay+cow dung+rice husk → lime plaster → pigments on moist surface.
• Medium: vegetable and mineral dyes.
• Famous paintings: Dying Princess (Cave 16), Padmapani (Cave 1), Vajrapani, Manjusri, Mahaparinirvana (Cave 26).

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Term from Latin 'Minium' (red lead paint). Conditions: not larger than 25 sq inch; subject painted in not more than 1/6th of actual size.

General features: side profile of human figures; bulging eyes; pointed nose; slim waist. Rajasthani figures = brown skin; Mughal figures = fairer; Krishna = blue.

4A. Early Miniatures (8th–12th CE)

Pala School of Art (750–1150 AD)

• Eastern India (Bengal/Bihar); Buddhist patronage, especially Vajrayana.
• Medium: palm leaf or vellum paper (banana/coconut only — non-violence rule).
• Features: sinuous lines, subdued tones, lonely single figures (rarely groups).
• Famous painters: Dhimman and Vitapala.

Apabhramsa School of Art (11th–15th CE)

• Gujarat and Mewar region (western India).
• Initially Jain themes; later Vaishnavism (Gita Govinda, secular love).
• Early phase: palm leaf; later: paper.
• Features: fish-shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose, double chin, angular faces, stiff figures; animals depicted as toys; female figurines with enlarged hips.
• Symbolic colours: red, yellow, ochre; later phase = bright and gold.
• Famous examples: Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya Katha (15th century).

4B. Transition Period Miniature (14th CE)

• Cultural synthesis of Islamic and Indian styles.
• Deccan style: flat colours, black outlines, three-quarter face angle, detached appearance.

4C. Delhi Sultanate Miniature

• Persian + Indian synthesis in illustrated manuscripts.
• Famous example: Nimatnama (book on cookery) under Nasir Shah of Mandu.
• Style called Lodi Khuladar prevalent between Delhi and Jaunpur.

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Origin: Persian antecedents; focus shifted from god to glorifying the ruler. Known for brilliant colours and foreshortening technique (objects drawn closer and smaller than they are).

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Rajput vs Mughal Style Comparison:

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Developed in sub-Himalayan states (22 princely states, Jammu to Almora). Two groups:

• Jammu/Dogra School: Northern series.
• Basholi and Kangra School: Southern series.

Greatest painters: Nainsukh and Manaku.

Basholi School (17th CE):

• Early Pahari phase.
• Expressive faces, receding hairline, big lotus-petal-shaped eyes.
• Primary colours: red, yellow, green.
• First patron: Raja Kirpal Singh (Rasamajari, Gita Govinda, Ramayana).
• Famous painter: Devi Das (Radha Krishna, kings in livery).
• Colours borrowed from Malwa paintings.

Kangra School:

• Originated in Guler; came to Kangra after Raja Govardhan Singh's patronage (1774).
• Reached zenith under Raja Sansar Chand.
• Subjects: Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal, Nal Damyanti; love scenes of Krishna.
• Famous series: 'Twelve Months' (emotional effect of months on humans).
• Parent school to Kullu, Chamba, Mandi ateliers.

Ragamala Paintings:

• Series based on Ragamala ('Garland of Ragas') — illustrating Indian musical ragas.
• Amalgamation of art, poetry, and classical music.
• Each raga personified by a colour; depicts nayaka-nayika (hero-heroine) in a mood; specifies season and time of day/night.
• Six principal ragas: Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaush, Megha, Hindola.
• Found in: Pahari, Rajput, Deccan, Mughal Ragamala.

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Distinguished by heavy use of gold and focus on divine creatures over rulers.

Tanjore (Thanjavur) Paintings:

• Patronised by Maratha rulers (18th century).
• Medium: glass and board (not cloth/vellum like N. India).
• Gold leaf, gemstones and cut glasses for embellishment.
• Theme: smiling Krishna in various poses.
• Zenith under Sarfoji Maharaj.

Mysore Paintings:

• Theme: Hindu gods and goddesses.
• Unique technique: gesso paste (zinc oxide + Arabic gum) for sheen on background.
• Muted colours to counteract the shiny background.
• Two or more figures; one figure predominates in size and colour.

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Company Paintings (Colonial period):

• Hybrid: Indian (Rajput, Mughal) + European styles.
• Distinguished by watercolour + linear perspective + shading.
• Originated in: Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi, Thanjavur.
• Famous painters: Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad, Ghulam Ali Khan.
• Patrons: Lord Impey, Marquess Wellesley.

Bazaar Paintings (Bengal and Bihar):

• NO Indian influence; took Greek and Roman influence.
• Copied Greek/Roman statues.
• Depicted Indian bazaars with European background; Indian courtesans dancing for British officials.
• Multi-armed Hindu gods (like Ganesha) prohibited.

Raja Ravi Verma (Kerala):

• Originator of modern painting school; South Indian painting + western techniques.
• Called 'Raphael of the East'.
• Famous works: Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India, Ravana Kidnapping Sita.
• Film on him: Rang Rasiya.

Bengal School of Art (early 20th century):

• Reactionary to existing styles; simple colours; Swadeshi values.
• Founded by Abanindranath Tagore (known for Bharat Mata, Mughal-themed paintings, Arabian Nights series).
• Nandlal Bose: Associated with Santiniketan; iconic white-on-black Gandhi sketch; illuminated the original Constitution of India.
• Rabindranath Tagore: Dominant black lines; small-sized; spiritual themes.
• Other painters: Asit Kumar Haldar, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Hemen Majumdar, Sunayani Devi.

Cubist Style:

• Inspired by European Cubism; objects broken, analysed, reassembled.
• M.F. Hussain: Personification of Romance series; horse motif for fluidity of motion.

Progressive Artists Group (1947):

• Inspired by European Modernism; bold/progressive themes.
• Founder: Francis Newton Souza.
• Members: S.H. Raza, H.A. Gade, Ara, M.F. Hussain.
• First exhibition: 1948; patronised by Mulk Raj Anand.
• Other associated painters: Balraj Khanna, V.S. Gaitonde, Biren De, Akbar Padamsee, Tyeb Mehta.

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• Living traditions: Warli, Kalamkari, Madhubani and Pattachitra are active folk traditions still practiced — art as intangible heritage.
• GI protection: Madhubani (geographic restriction) and Cheriyal Scroll paintings (2007) have GI status — linking IP law to cultural preservation.
• Art as identity: Nandlal Bose's illumination of the Constitution ties painting tradition directly to Indian nationhood.
• Syncretism: Mughal + Indian synthesis in Company paintings; Vaishnava appropriation of Jain Apabhramsa school — India's composite culture in paint.
• Bhakti Movement ↔ Paintings: Ragamala, Kishangarh (Radha-Krishna), Kangra (Gita Govinda) — religious devotion expressed through art patronage.
• UNESCO: Bhimbetka (2003) — pre-historic painting heritage now globally recognised.
• Gender and heritage: Madhubani is women-transmitted art — women as custodians of cultural memory.

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• ❗ Shadanga author: Vatsyayana in Kamasutra (not Bharata in Natyashastra, which is about dance/drama).
• ❗ Bhimbetka discovered by: V.S. Wakankar (1957–58), NOT by the Archaeological Survey directly.
• ❗ Bhimbetka UNESCO year: 2003 (Ajanta = 1983, Ellora = 1983).
• ❗ Ajanta cave periods: Caves 9 & 10 = Sunga; rest = Gupta. Most recent caves = 1 & 2.
• ❗ Blue colour ABSENT from Ajanta paintings; ALSO absent from Lepakshi paintings (primary colours absent there).
• ❗ Sittanavasal = Jain murals, Tamil Nadu (NOT Buddhist or Hindu temple).
• ❗ Lepakshi = Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur), NOT Karnataka or Tamil Nadu.
• ❗ Ravan Chhaya = Odisha (Keonjhar district), NOT Chhattisgarh.
• ❗ Pala School = Buddhist miniatures on palm leaf/vellum (8th–12th CE). Do NOT confuse with Pala architecture school.
• ❗ Apabhramsa School = Jain-origin miniatures from Gujarat/Mewar; NOT Buddhist.
• ❗ Nimatnama = cookery book (Delhi Sultanate, Mandu) — NOT a painting style itself.
• ❗ Jahangir = zenith of Mughal painting (NOT Akbar); Akbar = established Tasvir Khana.

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1. Shadanga = 6 principles of painting; codified by Vatsyayana in Kamasutra (3rd CE).
2. Petroglyphs = pre-historic rock engravings/paintings.
3. Bhimbetka: V.S. Wakankar (1957–58); UNESCO 2003; most paintings = Mesolithic.
4. Three prehistoric phases: Paleolithic (large animals, white/green/red) → Mesolithic (red, group hunting) → Chalcolithic (green/yellow, battle scenes).
5. Ajanta: fresco technique, blue absent, Sunga caves 9&10, Vakataka patronage.
6. Sittanavasal = Jain; Lepakshi = Andhra/Vijayanagara; Ravan Chhaya = Odisha.
7. Pala school = Buddhist, palm leaf, sinuous lines, single figures.
8. Apabhramsa school = Jain/Vaishnavite, Gujarat-Mewar, fish-shaped eyes.
9. Mughal: Humayun → Abdus Samad + Mir Sayyid Ali; Akbar → Tasvir Khana; Jahangir = zenith.
10. Kishangarh: Bani Thani + Nihal Chand; Kangra: Sansar Chand + Guler origin.
11. Ragamala = 6 principal ragas; raga = colour + mood + season + deity.
12. Tanjore: glass/board, gold leaf, Maratha, Sarfoji Maharaj; Mysore: gesso paste, muted colours.
13. Company paintings: watercolour, linear perspective; Bazaar: Greek/Roman, Bengal/Bihar.
14. Bengal School: Abanindranath Tagore (Bharat Mata); Nandlal Bose (Constitution); Rabindranath Tagore (dominant black lines).
15. Progressive Artists Group: Francis Newton Souza (founder, 1947); M.F. Hussain (horse motif).
16. Folk key pairings: Madhubani=Bihar(GI); Pattachitra=Odisha(lacquer); Kalamkari=AP(bamboo pen); Warli=Gujarat-Maharashtra border(white pigment); Thangka=Buddhist Himalayan states; Paitkar=Jharkhand(post-death theme); Manjusha=Bihar/Bhagalpur(snake); Phad=Rajasthan(Pabuji); Cheriyal=Telangana(GI 2007).