Indian Handicrafts: Textiles, Crafts, Embroidery and Floor Designs
Introduction / Context
Indian handicrafts represent the living traditions of thousands of artisans across every state. UPSC Prelims consistently tests region–craft pairing, technique identification, and distinguishing similar crafts. This topic is high-density with many short factual associations that must be memorised precisely.
1. Glassware
- First literary reference: Mahabharata.
- First material evidence: Glass beads from Painted Grey Ware culture, Ganges Valley (~1000 BC).
- Vedic term for glass: kanch or kaca (Satapatha Brahmana).
- Ancient glass industry: Brahmapuri and Kolhapur (Maharashtra) — 2 BC–2 AD — produced lenticular beads.
- Reference to spectacles in Sanskrit text Vyasayogacharita.
- Southern evidence: Maski (Chalcolithic site, Deccan).
- Other sites: Ahar (Rajasthan), Hastinapur + Ahichchatra (UP), Eran + Ujjain (MP).
- Medieval: Mughals used glass in Sheesh Mahal; famous for glass hukkas, perfume boxes (ittardans), engraved glasses.
Modern centres:
| Product | Centre |
|---|---|
| Glass bangles (Churikajodas) | Hyderabad |
| Glass chandeliers + decorative pieces | Firozabad |
| Panchkora (glass toys for children) | Saharanpur, UP |
| Tikuli (decorative glass beads) | Patna, Bihar — worn by Santhal tribes |
2. Handicrafts on Cloth — Fabric Techniques
| Technique | Description | Centres |
|---|---|---|
| Bandhani / Bandhej | Tie and Dye — knots tied on cloth before dipping in dye; resist dyeing | Rajasthan, Gujarat (primary); also AP and Tamil Nadu |
| Laharia | Special tie-and-dye producing ripple/wave-like patterns | Jaipur and Jodhpur |
| Ikat | Resist dyeing on yarn before weaving (not on finished cloth) | Telangana, Odisha, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh |
| Kalamkari | Hand painting on fabrics using vegetable dyes; kalam = pen | Andhra Pradesh |
| Batik Art | Fabric permeated with molten wax then dyed in cold — multicoloured sarees/dupattas | Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal |
3. Traditional Regional Sarees — Master Table
| Saree | State | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Pochampalli | Andhra Pradesh | Silk+cotton; geometric ikat dyeing; Air India crew uniform |
| Patola | Patan, Gujarat | Rich handloom sarees |
| Baluchari | Murshidabad, West Bengal | Ancient stories on border and pallu; silk threads |
| Jamdani | West Bengal | Finest muslin; opaque patterns on transparent background |
| Tanchoi Brocades | Varanasi | Single/double warp; 2–5 weft colours on silk |
| Chanderi | Madhya Pradesh | Silk + zari + cotton; lighter than a feather; see-through |
| Ilkal | Karnataka |
4. Ivory Crafting
- Vedic period reference: 'danta' (elephant's tusk).
- Harappan period: ivory dice exported to Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Persian Gulf.
- Sanchi inscription (2 BCE): guild of ivory workers from Vidisa carved Sanchi Stupa sculptures.
- Archaeological remains: ivory comb from Taxila (2 AD).
- Mughal period: ivory used for combs, dagger handles, ornaments.
- Traditional centres: Delhi, Jaipur, West Bengal — produce caskets, palanquins, Ambari Hathi.
Specialist centres:
- Kerala: Painting on ivory.
- Jodhpur: Ivory bangles.
- Jaipur: Ivory jali work (homes and art objects).
5. Terracotta Crafts
- Terracotta = 'Baked earth' — semi-fired ceramic clay; waterproof and hard.
- Best specimens: Bankura Horse, Panchmura Horse, and Terracotta temples — Bankura district, West Bengal.
- Ancient: Buddhist viharas of the Pala period = best ancient specimen of terracotta art.
6. Silver Jewellery
- Famous technique: Filigree work.
- Odisha: Silver anklets (painri and paijam); uniquely knitted silver ornaments called gunchi.
- Bidri work: Bidri village, Karnataka — silver inlay on dark backgrounds — stark silver contrast.
7. Clay & Pottery Work
- Pottery = 'Lyric of handicrafts'.
- Earliest evidence: Neolithic site of Mehrgarh (Pakistan), 6000 BC.
Ancient pottery timeline:
| Pottery Type | Period | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Painted Grey Ware | 1500–600 BC | Grey colour; Vedic period |
| Red and Black Pottery | 1500–300 BC | West Bengal region |
| Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) | Phase 1: 700–400 BC; Phase 2: 400–100 BC | Mauryan period; luxury items |
| Roulette Pottery | 200–100 BCE | South India; found at Arikamedu near Puducherry |
Gupta period (300–600 AD): embellishments, painting, stamping, molding. Indo-Islamic period: glazed pottery introduced.
Regional pottery types:
| Pottery | Place | Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Khurja Pottery | UP | Colourful, sturdy, household items |
| Black Pottery | Azamgarh, UP | Special dark tint |
| Glazed Tiles | Chunar and Chinhat | Special glazing techniques |
| Blue Pottery | Jaipur | Made of Multani Mitti |
| Kagzi Pottery | Alwar | Delicate, thin, slightly brittle |
| Pokhran Pottery | Pokhran | Household items |
| Dalgate Pottery | J&K | Special glaze |
| Karigari Pottery | Tamil Nadu | South Arcot centres |
8. Bronze Crafts
- Oldest bronze: Dancing Girl, Mohenjo-daro (~3500–3000 BCE).
- Bronze = copper + tin.
- Earliest literary evidence of bronze casting: Matsya Purana. Also: Nagarjuna's Rasa Ratnakar (metal purity, zinc distillation).
- UP = major bronze centre: Etawah, Sitapur, Varanasi, Moradabad — flower pots, Gods images, ritual items (tamrapatra, kanchantal, panchpatra).
- Tamil Nadu: Ancient statues — Pallava, Chola, Pandyan, Nayaka styles.
Brass work centres:
| Craft | Description | Centre |
|---|---|---|
| Gaja Tandava | Shiva dancing in Tandava posture | Kerala |
| Rare Jain imagery | Reflects ancient Jain pilgrim centres | Karnataka |
| Dokra Casting | Ornaments made of brass | Odisha and West Bengal |
| Pahaldar Lamps | Copper and brass lamps | Jaipur + UP |
| Pembarthi craft | Sheet metal (brass) art for chariots and temples | Warangal district, Telangana |
9. Crafts from Metals (Metal Work Techniques)
| Technique | Description | Centre |
|---|---|---|
| Marori work | Metal etchings on base metal; gaps filled with resin | Rajasthan |
| Repousse / Embossing | Raised design in relief | General |
| Engraving | Scratching/cutting lines into metal | General |
| Badla | Semi-circular/rounded pots made of zinc | Marwar region, Rajasthan |
| Baarik Kaam / Nakasshi | Delicate engraving on pots | Moradabad |
| Tarkashi | Fine copper/brass wires in chiseled grooves on metallic base | Rajasthan |
10. Leather Products
- Leather tanning existed since 3000 BCE.
- First animals tanned: tigers and deers; most popular became camels.
- Rajasthan: Biggest leather market; camel leather bags.
- Jaipur and Jodhpur: Mojadis (specific leather footwear).
- Kanpur: Major leather and tanned products centre.
- Maharashtra: Famous for Kolhapuri chappals.
- Punjab: Juttis — applique technique on footwear.
- Bikaner: Manoti Art — decorating articles with camel skin.
11. Wooden Work
| State | Wood Used | Speciality |
|---|---|---|
| Kashmir | Walnut, Deodar | Since 13th century; furniture, wooden houses, houseboats; lattice work: acche-dar, khatamband, azlipinjra |
| Gujarat | — | Wooden latticework on windows and doors |
| Himachal Pradesh (Brahmour, Chatrahi) | — | Temple carving: naghbel, kutheriphool, jali, dori |
| Karnataka | Sandalwood | Various carved wood items |
| Andhra Pradesh | Raktachandan (Red Sandalwood) | Carved dolls and figurines |
| Kerala | Teakwood | Tharavad Houses (deep brown, intricate woodwork) |
12. Various Types of Toys
- First evidence of toy carts: Harappan civilisation (Alamgirpur, Ambkheri, Kalibangan, Lothal).
- Early historic toy cart sites: Atranjikhera, Nagarjunakonda, Sambhar, Sonapur, Ujjain, Brahmpuri.
- Tirupati dolls (AP): Made of Red wood.
- Rajasthan: Dolls and stuffed toys of colourful cloth.
- Assam: Dolls made of pith (Indian cork).
- Mysore and Chennapatna: Lacquered wood toys.
- Kondapalli, AP: Soft wood called ponki — popular toy: Ambari Hathi.
13. Stoneware
- Mughal period: Pietra Dura work — colourful stone inlay on marble (Taj Mahal, Itmad-ud-Daulah's tomb).
- Rajasthan: Sang-e-Marmar = white Makrana marble.
- Jhansi, UP: Dark brown stone — Sang-e-Rathak.
14. Embroidery Crafts — Master Table
| Embroidery | State/Region | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Chikankari | Lucknow, UP | White thread; flowers and patterns; block print first then embroider; on cotton, mulmul, polyester |
| Kantha | West Bengal + Odisha | Layers of old cloth stitched; thread drawn from border threads of used cloth |
| Phulkari | Punjab (also Haryana, Delhi) | 'Making flowers'; darning technique; stitched on REVERSE of cloth; bright colours on light fabric |
| Bagh | Punjab | Similar to Phulkari but embroidery covers entire surface; silk threads on green cloth |
| Zardozi | UP | Gold, silver or copper wire + silk threads; heavy metallic embroidery |
| Kashidakari (Kashida) |
15. Floor Designs — Regional Traditions
| Floor Art | State | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Chowkpurna | Punjab + UP | Squares, circles, triangles; chowk = seat of Lakshmi |
| Aipan | Himachal Pradesh | Similar basic motifs |
| Mandana | Rajasthan + MP | Mandan = decoration; hexagons, triangles, circles; ground with cowdung + crimson red (reti/red earth) |
| Santhias | Gujarat | Entrance of houses on important occasions |
| Rangoli | Maharashtra | Elegant shapes; lotus, swastik motifs |
| Kolam | South India (Tamil Nadu primarily) | Lines linking dots; powdered rice or white crushed stone; outlined with red geru; also called: Hase (Karnataka), (AP), (Kerala) |
Applied Anchors
- Living heritage: Chikankari (Lucknow), Banarasi Brocade, Kashmiri Pashmina — handicrafts as livelihoods and GI-protected identities.
- Tribal economy: Bankura Horse (WB), Dokra casting (Odisha/WB), Warli — handicrafts as tribal economic mainstay.
- Ancient to modern continuity: Harappan toy cart tradition → modern Kondapalli toys; bronze Dancing Girl → Dokra casting today.
- Religion–craft linkage: Pichwai (backdrop for idols), Pipli applique (temple use), Kolam (daily worship), Thangka (Buddhist devotion) — craft as spiritual practice.
- GI protection: Pochampalli, Chanderi, Kashmiri Pashmina, Banaras Brocade — geographic indication connects craft to territory and protects artisans.
- Gender dimensions: Phulkari (women of Punjab), Kantha (women of Bengal), Madhubani — women as craft tradition keepers.
- Trade and globalisation: Tanchoi (Chinese origin via Surat), Ikat (international recognition), Company paintings (colonial synthesis) — handicrafts as cultural exchange sites.
Exam Traps
- ❗ Bandhani = Tie and Dye = Rajasthan and Gujarat primarily. NOT UP or Punjab.
- ❗ Ikat = dyeing on yarn BEFORE weaving (not on finished cloth like Bandhani). Major centres: Telangana, Odisha, Gujarat, AP — NOT Kerala.
- ❗ Kalamkari = hand-painted cotton textile in South India (AP) — NOT bamboo or silk. 2015 UPSC PYQ answer = (a).
- ❗ Batik = molten wax + cold dye — MP and West Bengal, NOT Gujarat or Rajasthan.
- ❗ Laharia = ripple/wave patterns; Jaipur and Jodhpur — do NOT confuse with Bandhani.
- ❗ Pochampalli = AP (geometric ikat); Patola = Gujarat (Patan) — frequently confused.
- ❗ Blue Pottery = Jaipur; made of Multani Mitti — NOT clay.
- ❗ Dokra Casting = Odisha + West Bengal — NOT Rajasthan.
- ❗ Bidri work = Karnataka — silver inlay on DARK backgrounds (NOT Odisha or UP).
- ❗ Phulkari = Punjab (also Haryana/Delhi); stitches on REVERSE of cloth. Bagh = similar but covers ENTIRE surface.
- ❗ Chikankari = Lucknow, UP = white thread, flowers. Kashida = J&K chain stitch (NO human/animal figures).
Quick Revision Points
- Glass: First mention in Mahabharata; first material evidence = Painted Grey Ware (1000 BC); glass industry in Brahmapuri/Kolhapur (Maharashtra); Churikajodas = Hyderabad; Tikuli = Patna.
- Bandhani = tie-and-dye = Rajasthan+Gujarat; Laharia = ripple tie-dye = Jaipur/Jodhpur; Ikat = yarn resist dyeing = Telangana/Odisha/Gujarat/AP.
- Kalamkari = hand-painted cotton textile = AP (UPSC 2015 answer).
- Batik = molten wax + cold dye = MP + West Bengal.
- Traditional sarees: Pochampalli=AP(ikat); Patola=Gujarat(Patan); Baluchari=WB(Murshidabad); Chanderi=MP; Nauvari=9-yard Maharashtra; Paithani=Maharashtra(gold+parrot); Kasavu=Kerala(golden border).
- Ivory: Kerala=paintings; Jodhpur=bangles; Jaipur=jali work.
- Terracotta: Bankura Horse = West Bengal; Pala period Buddhist viharas = finest ancient terracotta.
- Blue Pottery = Jaipur = Multani Mitti.
- Roulette Pottery = South India, Arikamedu near Puducherry.
- Dokra = Odisha+WB; Pembarthi = Warangal/Telangana; Bidri = Karnataka.
- Phulkari = Punjab (reverse of cloth); Bagh = Punjab (covers entire surface); Chikankari = Lucknow (white thread); Kasuti = Karnataka (no knots, both sides alike).
- Kolam = South India; Hase=Karnataka; Muggulu=AP; Golam=Kerala; outlined in red geru.
- Aripana = West Bengal+Assam; Jhonti = Odisha; Mandana = Rajasthan+MP; Rangoli = Maharashtra.
- Mojadis = Rajasthan; Manoti Art = Bikaner; Kolhapuri = Maharashtra.
- Tirupati dolls = Red wood (AP); Ambari Hathi = ponki wood, Kondapalli (AP).
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