Struggle for Empire in North India: Mughals and Afghans (1525–1556)

Central Asian Geopolitics and Babur's Origins

The collapse of the Mongol empire in the fourteenth century left a power vacuum in Central Asia. Timur briefly reunited Iran and Turan under one rule, building an empire stretching from the lower Volga to the river Indus, including Asia Minor, Iran, Trans-Oxiana, and Afghanistan. After Timur's death in 1404, his grandson Shahrukh Mirza (d. 1448) maintained much of this inheritance, making Samarqand and Herat the cultural capitals of the Islamic world.

The Timurid decline in the latter half of the fifteenth century was accelerated by the tradition of partitioning the empire among princes — a fatal structural weakness. Two new powers filled the void:

• The Uzbeks (a Mongol tribe from the north): Sunni Muslims, but regarded as uncultured by the Timurids.
• The Safavids of Iran: A dynasty descended from a Sufi order, supporters of the Shia sect, who persecuted Sunnis and came into bitter conflict with the Uzbeks.
• The Ottoman Turks (from the west): Rising power seeking dominance over eastern Europe, Iraq, and Iran.

This sectarian and geopolitical triangle set the stage for Babur's forced migration toward India.

Babur's Early Career

In 1494, at the age of 14, Zahir ud-Din Muhammad Babur succeeded to Farghana, a small principality in Trans-Oxiana. Ambitious to reclaim Samarqand — the jewel of Timurid prestige — he twice captured the city but could not hold it. On the second occasion, the Uzbek chief Shaibani Khan was called in to oust Babur, and then overran all remaining Timurid kingdoms. This forced Babur to move toward Kabul, which he conquered in 1504.

For the next fourteen years, Babur bided his time, seeking allies against the Uzbeks. An attempt to recapture Samarqand with Iranian (Safavid) help briefly succeeded — Babur was installed there — but the Iranian generals treated him as a subordinate governor, not an independent prince. Meanwhile, the Uzbeks recovered, and Shah Ismail of Iran was later defeated by the Ottomans, leaving the Uzbeks masters of Trans-Oxiana. These cascading developments finally compelled Babur to look towards India.

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Long-Term Causes:

• Babur's ancestral claim: Timur had once controlled Punjab, giving Babur a perceived dynastic right to those territories.
• Economic compulsion: Kabul's revenues were insufficient for maintaining an army. The historian Abul Fazl noted that expense on controlling armies often exceeded income from Badakhshan, Qandhar, and Kabul combined.
• India's legendary wealth ('the land of gold and riches') attracted Babur as it had Timur before him.
• India provided a secure base to eventually reconquer Central Asia from the Uzbeks.

Immediate Causes:

• Political vacuum in North India: Sikandar Lodi had died in 1517; his successor Ibrahim Lodi alienated both Afghan chiefs and Rajputs with his centralising ambitions.
• Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab and virtually an independent ruler, sent his son Dilawar Khan to invite Babur to invade and displace Ibrahim.
• Around the same time, Rana Sanga of Mewar also reportedly sent an embassy inviting Babur, hoping he would weaken the Lodis and withdraw as Timur had done.
• Babur conquered the fort of Bhira (1518–19), then Sialkot and Lahore (1520–21), gaining a foothold. By 1525, when Daulat Khan changed sides, Babur crossed the Indus within three weeks and became master of the Punjab.

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The First Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526)

Babur marched on Delhi when conflict with Ibrahim Lodi became inevitable. Ibrahim's forces were estimated at 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants, though the actual fighting strength was far lower since Indian armies included large numbers of non-combatant servants. Babur crossed the Indus with 12,000 men, swelled by Hindustani nobles who joined him in Punjab.

Babur's tactical innovations at Panipat:

• The Ottoman (Rumi) device: Babur lashed together a large number of carts as a defending wall; between carts, breastworks were erected for soldiers to fire guns. Gaps were left for cavalry sallies.
• He secured the services of two Ottoman master-gunners, Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
• Flanking manoeuvre (tulughma): The two extreme wings of Babur's army wheeled around and attacked Ibrahim's forces from the side and rear.
• Gunners used artillery from the front while cavalry attacked the flanks.

Ibrahim Lodi had expected mobile warfare — rapid advance or retreat — typical of Central Asian tactics, and was unprepared for Babur's entrenched, artillery-based position. After skirmishing for 7–8 days, Ibrahim's forces came out for the decisive battle, hesitated seeing Babur's strength, and were caught mid-reorganisation. Ibrahim Lodi died fighting with a group of 5,000–6,000 men; more than 15,000 of his men were killed.

Significance of Panipat I: It ended Lodi power, brought Delhi and Agra under Babur, and opened a new phase in the struggle for North India. Babur explicitly decided to stay — declaring he would not return to "the poverty of Kabul" — fundamentally changing the nature of the contest from raid to permanent conquest.

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The Battle of Khanwa (1527)

Babur's decision to stay in India alarmed Rana Sanga of Mewar, who had expected Babur to withdraw after defeating the Lodis. Sanga commanded a powerful Rajput confederacy; his influence had extended up to Piliya Khar, near Agra. Afghan chiefs who had rallied to Sanga — including Mahmud Lodi (younger brother of Ibrahim) — hoped to use a Sanga victory to reclaim Delhi. Hasan Khan Mewati, ruler of Mewat, also joined Sanga's coalition.

Babur accused Sanga of breach of promise (for not aiding him against Ibrahim), declared the war a jihad, emptied wine jars, broke wine flasks publicly, banned wine sale across his dominions, and abolished customs taxes on Muslims — all acts of ostentatious piety to mobilise religious sentiment among his troops who wanted to return home.

Battle tactics at Khanwa (40 km from Agra): Similar to Panipat — chained wagons as defensive wall, trenches, gaps for musketeers firing from wheeled tripods. Sanga's forces (claimed to exceed 200,000 including 10,000 Afghan cavalry and an equal force from Hasan Khan Mewati) made ferocious attacks almost breaching Babur's right flank. Mughal artillery and the ordered launch of a central attack ultimately pushed Sanga's forces back. Rana Sanga escaped but was subsequently poisoned by his own nobles who considered further resistance suicidal.

Aftermath: Babur conquered the chain of forts — Gwalior, Dholpur — east of Agra, and annexed large parts of Alwar. He then led a campaign against Medini Rai of Chanderi (1528), where Chanderi was captured after Rajput defenders died fighting to the last and their women performed jauhar.

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The Battle of Ghagra (1529)

Eastern Uttar Pradesh remained under Afghan chiefs backed by Nusrat Shah, ruler of Bengal (who had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi). Mahmud Lodi reached Bihar and was hailed by the Afghans as their ruler. Babur moved east in early 1529, crossing the Ganga near Banaras and facing the combined Afghan and Bengal forces at the crossing of the river Ghagra. He compelled the Bengal and Afghan armies to retreat but could not win a decisive victory due to illness and anxiety about Central Asian affairs. He patched up an agreement, leaving Afghan chiefs largely in control of Bihar, and returned to Agra. He died near Lahore shortly after, on his way to Kabul.

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Significance of Babur's Advent

1. Geopolitical integration: For the first time since the Kushan empire, Kabul and Qandhar became integral parts of a north Indian empire, providing security against external invasions for nearly 200 years.
2. Trade benefit: Control of Kabul and Qandhar strengthened India's foreign trade as these were key transit points for caravans to China and Mediterranean seaports.
3. Military revolution: Babur introduced a new mode of warfare combining artillery and cavalry. Gunpowder, though known earlier, became common in north India from his time — reducing the strategic importance of forts.
4. Destruction of the balance of power: The power of both the Lodis and the Rajput confederacy (under Sanga) was smashed, removing all existing countervailing forces.
5. Monarchical prestige: Babur re-established the prestige of the Crown, which had eroded since Firuz Tughlaq. His descent from both Changez and Timur gave him unmatched dynastic legitimacy.
6. Cultural contribution: Babur wrote the Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) in Turkish — considered a classic of world literature. He was a keen naturalist who described Indian flora and fauna. He patronised the fine arts and introduced a new concept of state based on Crown prestige, absence of sectarian bigotry, and careful fostering of culture.

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Humayun: Conquest, Loss, and Restoration

Humayun's inheritance (1530): At 23, Humayun inherited an unconsolidated empire. Kabul and Qandhar were under his younger brother Kamran (who soon seized Lahore and Multan). The Afghans in eastern UP were unsubdued. The Sur (Afghan) power was rising under Sher Khan.

Gujarat Campaign (1535): Bahadur Shah of Gujarat (r. 1526) had conquered Malwa, besieged Chittor, and allied with Afghan chiefs. Humayun moved toward Gujarat, cleverly occupying a position midway between Chittor and Mandu, cutting Bahadur Shah off from Malwa. Bahadur Shah fled — abandoning his fortified camp, fleeing to Mandu, then Champaner, then Ahmedabad and Kathiawar. Humayun captured the rich provinces of Malwa and Gujarat along with the treasure hoarded at Mandu and Champaner. However, both Gujarat and Malwa were lost as quickly as they were gained due to: his brother Askari's inexperience in governing Gujarat; Mughal nobles being mutually divided; popular uprisings backed by Bahadur Shah's nobles; and Humayun himself retiring to Mandu. Bahadur Shah died in a scuffle with the Portuguese, ending the Gujarat threat permanently.

Conflict with Sher Khan: Sher Khan (born Farid, son of a small jagirdar at Jaunpur) rose through administrative and military talent. He became the master of Bihar, and was in close touch with Bahadur Shah, who subsidised his army of 1,200 elephants and a large cavalry.

• Siege of Chunar (1532–33): Humayun besieged Chunar — a key fort controlling land and river routes between Agra and the east. Sher Khan persuaded him to accept a face-saving offer: a son as hostage, nominal loyalty, retention of the fort. Humayun accepted to rush back to Agra, alarmed by Bahadur Shah's activities.
• Bengal Campaign (1537–38): Humayun marched to Bengal to dislodge Sher Khan, besieging Chunar again (six months) while Sher Khan captured the powerful fort of Rohtas by treachery and invaded Bengal. Humayun took Gaur (Bengal's capital) but was outmanoeuvred — Sher Khan bottled him up in Bengal while Humayun's younger brother Hindal declared rebellion at Agra. Humayun managed to retreat to Chausa near Buxar without serious loss — a significant achievement under terrible conditions.

Battle of Chausa (March 1539): Sher Khan feigned a peace offer, luring Humayun to cross the Karmnasa river, exposing his army to the Afghan cavalry encamped there. Humayun chose his ground badly. The Mughals were caught unawares. Humayun barely escaped by swimming across the river with the help of a water-carrier. About 7,000 Mughal soldiers and many prominent nobles were killed. Sher Khan now took the title Sher Shah.

Battle of Kanauj (May 1540): Humayun assembled a new army at Agra, but Kamran refused to send his 10,000 battle-hardened Mughals. Humayun's younger brothers Askari and Hindal fought valiantly but could not compensate. Sher Shah decisively defeated Humayun. Humayun became a prince without a kingdom — Kabul and Qandhar were held by Kamran, and he wandered in Sindh and neighbouring countries for two and a half years. Rulers of Sindh and Maldeo of Marwar refused to help. His own brothers attempted to have him killed or imprisoned.

Exile and Restoration: Humayun finally sought shelter at the court of the Iranian (Safavid) king, with whose help he recaptured Qandhar and Kabul in 1545. After Islam Shah's death in 1553, civil war among the Sur successors gave Humayun the opportunity. In two hotly contested battles in 1555, he defeated the Afghans and recovered Delhi and Agra. He died in January 1556 from a fall from the first floor of his library building in his fort at Delhi. His favourite wife built the magnificent Humayun's Tomb — a landmark in north Indian architecture featuring a spectacular marble dome.

Why did Humayun fail against Sher Shah?

• Inability to understand the nature of Afghan power: scattered tribal groups could always reunite under a capable leader.
• Failure to win over local rulers and zamindars — the Mughals remained numerically inferior.
• The Bengal campaign was a strategic blunder — purposeless march that led to the Chausa disaster.
• Fraternal conflicts: Kamran's refusal to cooperate was decisive at Kanauj.
• Personal failings: poor political and military judgment at Chausa; over-reliance on opium (though this charge has been exaggerated).

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Sher Shah Sur and the Sur Empire (1540–1555)

Rise of Sher Shah: Farid was given the title Sher Khan by his patron for killing a tiger (sher). He became the de facto master of Bihar before Babur's death. His rise was not sudden — it was the product of years of administrative and military experience.

Extent of the Sur Empire: At its height, Sher Shah's empire extended from Bengal to the Indus (excluding Kashmir), and included Malwa and most of Rajasthan — the mightiest empire in north India since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Military Campaigns:

• Conquered most of Rajasthan; Battle of Samel (1544) against Maldeo of Marwar — Sher Shah used a clever stratagem, dropping forged letters near Maldeo's camp suggesting his commanders were disloyal. Maldeo withdrew. Isolated Rajput sardars attacked with about 10,000 men but were overwhelmed by superior Afghan gun-fire.
• Conquered Ajmer, Jodhpur, and most of Rajasthan; Mewar sent the keys of Chittor.
• Died during the siege of Kalinjar (1545) when a gun burst and severely injured him. He died after hearing the fort had been captured.

Administrative Reforms — Sher Shah's Legacy:

Land Revenue:

• Land was measured (not guesswork); the share of the state was fixed at one-third of the produce.
• Rates (ray) were drawn up for different types of crops.
• Each peasant received a patta (written document) stating the area sown, crops, and the amount payable — preventing arbitrary exactions.
• Peasants could pay in cash or kind (state preferred cash).
• A cess of two and a half seers per bigha was levied against famine and calamities.
• Village headmen (mupaddams) and zamindars were held responsible for losses suffered by merchants on roads.

Roads and Sarais:

• Restored the Grand Trunk Road from the river Indus (west) to Sonargaon in Bengal.
• Built a road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor (linking Gujarat seaports).
• A third road from Lahore to Multan (staging point for Central Asian caravans).
• Built 1,700 sarais (fortified inns) at every two kos (~8 km): provided lodging, food for travellers, separate quarters for Hindus and Muslims. Brahmanas were appointed to provide bed and food for Hindu travellers, grains for animals. These sarais also served as dak-chowkis (postal relay stations) and many developed into market-towns (qasbas).

Trade and Currency:

• Customs duty collected only at two points: border of Bengal/Bihar (Sikrigali), and at the Indus (for West/Central Asian goods). No internal tolls at ferries, roads, or towns.
• Struck fine coins of gold, silver, and copper of uniform standard, replacing debased mixed-metal coins. His silver rupee remained a standard coin for centuries.
• Fixed standard weights and measures empire-wide.
• Directed governors and amils to protect merchants; held village headmen responsible for any loss on roads.

Military Organisation:

• Maintained a strong central army: 150,000 cavalry, 25,000 infantry (matchlocks or bows), 5,000 elephants, and a park of artillery.
• Every soldier had a descriptive roll (chehra) recorded; horses branded with the imperial sign (dagh system, borrowed from Alauddin Khalji's military reforms).
• Set up cantonments in different parts of the empire.

Administrative Divisions:

• Empire divided into sarkars, each under a shiqdar-i-shiqdaran and a munsif-i-munsifan.
• Each sarkar subdivided into parganas, each under a shiqdar (law and order) and munsif/amil (revenue collection).
• Accounts maintained in both Persian and local languages (Hindavi).
• Several sarkars grouped into provinces, but provincial governors appear to have been all-powerful in some areas; in Bengal, real power remained with tribal chiefs.

Justice:

• Sher Shah placed considerable emphasis on justice: "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites."
• Did not spare oppressors — whether high nobles, his own tribesmen, or near relations.
• Qazis appointed for formal justice; village panchayats and zamindars handled civil and criminal cases at the local level.
• His son Islam Shah codified the laws, dispensing with the need for specialist interpreters of Islamic law.

Architecture and Culture:

• Built his own tomb at Sasaram — regarded as one of the masterpieces of Indian architecture: a culmination of the earlier style and a starting point for what developed later.
• Built a new city on the banks of the Yamuna near Delhi — sole survivor is the Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it.
• Patronised learned men; finest works in Hindi such as the Padmavat of Malik Muhammad Jaisi were completed under Islam Shah.

Limitations of the Sur State:

• Remained an Afghan institution based on race and tribe — jizyah continued to be collected from Hindus; nobility was drawn almost exclusively from Afghans.
• Excessive centralisation in Sher Shah personally was a structural weakness — when a masterful sovereign ceased to sit on the throne, the system weakened.
• Islam Shah spent most of his energies on rebellions raised by his brothers and tribal feuds among the Afghans.
• A fundamental transformation awaited the emergence of Akbar.

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• GS Paper I — Medieval History: This topic directly addresses political history, state formation, military technology, and administrative innovations of medieval India.
• Continuity vs. Change: Sher Shah continued the Sultanate administrative framework (pargana, sarkar, shiqdar) but rationalised and strengthened it; Babur's military revolution changed the nature of warfare but did not immediately alter governance structures.
• State and Religion: Babur's declaration of jihad at Khanwa shows how religious legitimacy was instrumentally used for political mobilisation — yet his court was free of sectarian conflict. This prefigures Akbar's more systematic policy of religious inclusion.
• Trade, Economy, and Infrastructure: Sher Shah's road-sarai-dak system shows the pre-modern state's role in stimulating commerce, prefiguring colonial-era railway infrastructure debates.
• Centre-Periphery Dynamics: Humayun's failure partly reflects the classic problem of maintaining central authority over large, diverse territories with limited communications — a recurring theme from Mauryas to Mughals.
• Military Technology and Social Change: The introduction of gunpowder artillery changed the balance of power between mobile cavalry armies and fortified cities, impacting the political economy of medieval India.
• Interlink: Babur → Mughal Empire foundations ↔ Sher Shah → Akbar's administrative model. Sur Empire = bridge between Delhi Sultanate and the mature Mughal state. Battle of Panipat I ↔ Battle of Panipat II (1556) — bookending the founding Mughal generation.

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1. Panipat I (1526) vs. Panipat II (1556): Do not confuse. Panipat I: Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi. Panipat II: Akbar (Bairam Khan) vs. Hemu. The chapter covers only up to Humayun's restoration (1555) and his death (1556).
2. 'First' use of gunpowder: Babur used gunpowder against the fortress of Bhira — he states it was the first time he used it in an attack on a fortress. Gunpowder was known in India before but became common in north India from Babur's time.
3. Ottoman (Rumi) device: This was Babur's tactic of chaining carts as a wall with breastworks for gunners. It is called 'Ottoman' because the Ottomans had used it against Shah Ismail — not because Ottoman soldiers fought at Panipat.
4. Sher Shah's name: His original name was Farid, not Sher. He was given the title Sher Khan for killing a tiger; 'Sher Shah' was the title he took after Chausa (1539). Do not confuse with 'Shaibani Khan' (the Uzbek chief who ousted Babur).
5. Rana Sanga and Khanwa: Sanga was NOT defeated militarily and then killed — he escaped from Khanwa, but was later poisoned by his own nobles who considered further resistance suicidal.
6. Battle of Ghagra (1529): Often confused with Khanwa (1527) or overlooked. Ghagra was fought against the combined Afghan-Bengal forces — it was not a decisive Mughal victory, and Babur patched up an agreement leaving much of Bihar with Afghan chiefs.
7. Humayun's death: He died from a fall from the first floor of his library building in his fort at Delhi — not in battle, not from illness unrelated to his fall.
8. Sher Shah's silver rupee: The silver rupee introduced by Sher Shah remained a standard coin for centuries after him. Do not attribute the rupee's origin to the Mughals (Akbar continued it but did not originate it).

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• Babur: Timurid + Mongol lineage; Farghana (1494) → Kabul (1504) → Delhi (1526).
• Three decisive battles: Panipat (1526) — Lodis; Khanwa (1527) — Rajput confederacy; Ghagra (1529) — Afghans + Bengal.
• Babur's military innovation: Ottoman (Rumi) device + tulughma (flanking manoeuvre) + Ottoman master-gunners (Ustad Ali, Mustafa).
• Babur's work: Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) — Turkish; also wrote a masnavi and translated a Sufi work into Turkish.
• Humayun: Gujarat campaign (1535) — successful but lost; Chausa (1539) — disaster; Kanauj (1540) — exile; restored (1555); died January 1556.
• Humayun's Tomb: built by his wife; marks new phase in architecture — magnificent marble dome.
• Sher Shah: original name Farid; title from killing tiger; Chausa (1539) → Kanauj (1540) → Sur Empire.
• Sher Shah died: siege of Kalinjar (1545) — gun burst injury.
• Sher Shah's son: Islam Shah (ruled 1545–1553); succeeded by Islam Shah's son who was killed, leading to civil war.
• Land revenue: one-third state share; patta system; ray schedule; peasant informed in advance.
• Roads: Grand Trunk Road (Indus to Sonargaon); Agra-Jodhpur-Chittor; Lahore-Multan; 1,700 sarais every 2 kos.
• Currency: fine gold, silver (rupee), copper coins of uniform standard.
• Administrative hierarchy: Pargana → Sarkar → Province. Officers: shiqdar, munsif/amil.
• Sur state remained Afghan and tribal — fundamentally changed only with Akbar.