The Age of the Satavahanas
After the fall of the Maurya empire (185 BCE), two broad zones of political succession emerged. In north-western India, Central Asian powers — Sungas, Kanvas, Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans — competed for dominance. In the Deccan and central India, the most important native successors of the Mauryas were the Satavahanas, identified with the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas.
The Puranas speak only of the Andhra rule (not Satavahana rule), yet the name Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions — this is an important historiographical point. The Puranas claim the Andhras ruled for 300 years, a period assigned to the Satavahana dynasty. Their earliest inscriptions belong to the first century BCE, when they defeated the Kanvas and established power in parts of central India.
Key geographical fact: The early Satavahana kings appeared not in Andhra but in Maharashtra, where most of their earliest inscriptions have been found. They set up their power in the upper Godavari valley (modern Maharashtra). Gradually they extended their rule over Karnataka and Andhra; their greatest competitors were the Sakas.
Political History: Key Rulers and Events
Early Phase and Saka Conflict
At one stage the Satavahanas were dispossessed of their dominions by the Sakas in Maharashtra and western India. Their fortunes were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106–130) — the greatest of Satavahana rulers.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106–130)
- Called himself the only brahmana (eka-brahmana)
- Claimed to have destroyed many kshatriya rulers and the Kshaharata lineage to which the Saka adversary Nahapana belonged
- This claim is verified: more than 8,000 silver coins of Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of being restruck by the Satavahana king — a practice symbolizing conquest
- He occupied Malwa and Kathiawar (previously under Saka control)
- His empire extended from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south, with general authority over Andhra
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (AD 130–154)
- Immediate successor of Gautamiputra
- Set up his capital at Paithan (or Pratisthan) on the Godavari in Aurangabad district
- By the middle of the second century, the area had become a full part of the Satavahana kingdom
- The Sakas (under Rudradaman I, AD 130–150) resumed conflict with the Satavahanas for possession of the Konkan coast and Malwa
- Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice but did NOT destroy them — on account of matrimonial relations (marriage alliances) between the two dynasties
Yajna Sri Satakarni (AD 165–194)
- One of the later Satavahana kings
- Recovered north Konkan and Malwa from Saka rulers
- Famous as a lover of trade and navigation — his coins carry the image of a ship, symbolizing maritime interests
- His coins are found not only in Andhra but also in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat
End of the Dynasty
Successors of Gautamiputra ruled till AD 220. After the Satavahanas, the region in the Deccan was taken over by their successors, including the Ikshvakus.
Aspects of Material Culture
Iron and Agriculture
The material culture of the Deccan under the Satavahanas was a fusion of local and northern elements. The megalith builders of the Deccan were acquainted with iron and agriculture even before the Satavahana period. Before circa 200 BCE, iron hoes were already found in the Deccan, but the number of iron tools increased substantially in the first two or three centuries of the Christian era.
Key Satavahana-era iron tools found in the Karimnagar district:
- Fully and properly socketed hoes, sickles, spades, ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors
- Tanged and socketed arrowheads and daggers
- Even a blacksmith's shop discovered at a site in Karimnagar district
The Satavahanas may have exploited iron ores of Karimnagar and Warangal; evidence of gold workings has been found in the Kolar fields in the early Christian centuries.
Coinage
- The Satavahanas used gold as bullion but did NOT issue gold coins (unlike the Kushans)
- They issued coins mainly of lead, plus copper and bronze money
- The Ikshvakus also issued coins; both Satavahanas and Ikshvakus exploited the Deccan's mineral resources
Agriculture and Towns
- The area between the Krishna and Godavari rivers, especially near the river mouths, formed a great rice bowl; the Deccan was also famous for cotton products
- According to Pliny, the Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants — supported by peasant surplus
- Towns appeared in Maharashtra by the first century BCE (several crafts flourished)
- The eastern Deccan produced towns a century later (1st century CE); the Godavari-Krishna area saw towns appear about a century after that
- Pliny reports the Andhra country in the eastern Deccan included 30 walled towns besides numerous villages
Northern Influence on Material Culture
Through contacts with the north, people of the Deccan learnt:
- Use of coins, burnt bricks, ringwells — elements important in north India by 300 BCE, acquired importance in the Deccan a couple of centuries later
- At Peddabankur (200 BCE – AD 200) in Karimnagar district: regular use of fire-baked bricks and flat, perforated roof tiles leading to lasting structures
- As many as 22 brickwells belonging to the second century AD discovered at Peddabankur — facilitating thick habitations
- Covered drains underground leading waste water into soakage pits
Origins and Brahmanization
The Satavahanas originally seem to have been a tribe of the Deccan who were gradually brahmanized. Their most famous king Gautamiputra Satakarni claims to have established the fourfold varna system that had fallen into disorder — disorder caused by Saka infiltration and superficial brahmanization of Deccan tribes.
Orthodox brahmanas of the north looked upon the Andhras as a mixed caste — they were a tribal people brought within the fold of Hindu society as a mixed caste.
Traders, Artisans, and the Merchant Class
Increasing craft and commerce brought merchants and artisans to the forefront. Merchants took pride in naming themselves after the towns they belonged to. Both artisans and merchants made generous donations to the Buddhist cause; they set up small memorial tablets.
Among artisans, the gandhikas (perfumers) are repeatedly mentioned as donors. At a later stage gandhika became a general term for all shopkeepers. The modern title Gandhi is derived from this ancient term.
Matrilineal Social Structure
The most interesting feature of Satavahana society relates to their family structure. While Aryan north India was patriarchal (father enjoyed greater importance), the Satavahanas show clear traces of a matrilineal social structure:
- It was customary for their king to be named after his mother — names like Gautamiputra (son of Gautami) and Vasishthiputra (son of Vasishtha) indicate that mother enjoyed great social importance
- Queens made important religious gifts and some acted as regents
- However, the ruling family was basically patriarchal because succession to the throne passed to the male member
Pattern of Administration
Royal Ideology
The Satavahana king was represented as the upholder of dharma, with divine attributes comparable to Rama, Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna — attributed with divinity and supernatural prowess. This was meant to reinforce royal authority.
Administrative Units and Officials
- The Satavahanas retained some Ashokan administrative units: their district was called ahara (as in Asoka's time)
- Officers were known as amatyas and mahamatras — same terms as in Maurya times
- The senapati was appointed provincial governor — significant because tribal people in the Deccan were not thoroughly Hinduized and needed strong military control
- Rural administration was in the hands of the gaulmika — head of a military regiment consisting of nine chariots, nine elephants, 25 horses, and 45 foot-soldiers
- Military camps and settlements served as administrative centres: terms like kataka and skandhavaras appear in Satavahana inscriptions
Feudal Elements
The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories:
- Raja — highest grade; had the right to strike coins
- Mahabhoja — second grade
- Senapati — third grade
These feudatories and landed beneficiaries enjoyed some authority in their respective localities.
Land Grants
The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The cultivated fields and villages granted were declared free from molestation by royal policemen, soldiers, and all royal officers — making these areas small independent islands within the kingdom. This practice of immunized land grants became significant for later Indian feudalism.
Brahmanical Religion
The Satavahana rulers claimed to be brahmanas and represented the march of triumphant brahmanism. From the beginning, kings and queens performed Vedic sacrifices such as the asvamedha, vajapeya, etc. They worshipped Vaishnava gods like Krishna, Vasudeva, and others, and paid liberal sacrificial fees to the brahmanas.
Buddhism
Despite their brahmanical claims, the Satavahana rulers promoted Buddhism by granting land to monks. In their kingdom the Mahayana form of Buddhism commanded considerable following, especially in the artisan class. Key Buddhist centres:
- Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh — important seats of Buddhist culture
- Buddhism also flourished in the Nasik and Junar areas in the western Deccan (Maharashtra), supported by traders
Rock-Cut Architecture
In the Satavahana phase, many temples and monasteries were cut out of solid rock in the north-western Deccan (Maharashtra) with great skill. The process had started about a century earlier (from 200 BCE).
Two common structures:
- Chaitya — a large hall with a number of columns, entered by a doorway from a verandah in front; used as a temple
- Vihara — a monastery; consisted of a central hall entered from a verandah in front; used for monks' residence, especially in the rainy season
The most famous chaitya is that of Karle in the western Deccan — about 40 metres long, 15 metres wide, and 15 metres high; an impressive specimen of massive rock architecture.
At Nasik, three viharas carry inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra, belonging to the first-second centuries AD.
Stupas
The region in Andhra (Krishna-Godavari region) is really famous for independent Buddhist structures — the most important are the stupas distributed over an area of 125 km all around Ellora. The most famous are:
- Amaravati stupa — begun around 200 BCE but completely reconstructed in the second half of the second century AD. Its dome measured 53 metres across the base and about 33 metres in height. Full of sculptures depicting various scenes from the life of the Buddha. Famous for its sculptural richness.
- Nagarjunakonda — prospered most under the Ikshvakus (successors of the Satavahanas). Contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the earliest brahmanical brick temples.
The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit. All inscriptions were composed in Prakrit and written in the Brahmi script — the same as in Asokan times. Some Satavahana kings may have composed Prakrit books.
One Prakrit text called Gathasaptasati is attributed to the Satavahana king Hala. It consists of 700 verses, all written in Prakrit, but seems to have been finally re-touched much later, possibly after the sixth century AD.
- GS Paper I — Ancient History: The Satavahanas illustrate the process of brahmanization of tribal peoples and the development of a feudal land-grant system that became the template for post-Gupta Indian polity.
- Continuity vs. Change: Satavahana administration retained Mauryan structural elements (ahara, amatyas, mahamatras) while adding feudal and military dimensions (senapati as governor, gaulmika for rural control).
- Art and Architecture: The Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda schools of Buddhist art, and rock-cut chaitya-vihara architecture, are directly relevant to GS Paper I (Indian Art and Culture).
- Social History: The Satavahana matrilineal traces alongside patriarchal succession is a nuanced example of the complexity of ancient Indian social structure.
- Trade and Economy: Yajna Sri Satakarni's ship-on-coin motif and the dense trade activity in the Deccan connects to ancient Indian maritime and commercial history.
- Interlinks: Satavahanas ↔ Sakas (political conflict + matrimonial alliances) ↔ Buddhist Art (Amaravati, Karle, Nagarjunakonda) ↔ Land Grants (early feudalism) ↔ Ikshvakus (successors)
- Satavahanas ≠ Andhras in inscriptions: The Puranas call them Andhras, but the name Andhra does NOT appear in Satavahana inscriptions. Satavahana is the dynastic name; Andhra is the Puranic name. Do not conflate.
- Early Satavahanas were based in Maharashtra, NOT Andhra: Their earliest inscriptions are from Maharashtra (upper Godavari valley), not from the Andhra region — a very common confusion.
- Gautamiputra Satakarni's dates: AD 106–130, NOT 1st century BCE. Do not push him back in time.
- Rudradaman I defeated Satavahanas TWICE but did not destroy them: Because of matrimonial relations (marriage alliances). This nuance is frequently tested.
- Nahapana's coins: More than 8,000 Nahapana silver coins found near Nasik with restruck marks — this is the evidence for Gautamiputra's victory over Nahapana, not an inscription or literary source.
- Matrilineal ≠ Matriarchal: Satavahana society had matrilineal naming customs (kings named after mothers), but succession passed to male members — it was matrilineal but NOT matriarchal.
- Gaulmika ≠ Village headman: The gaulmika was the head of a military regiment (nine chariots, nine elephants, 25 horses, 45 foot-soldiers) who headed rural administration — not a civilian village head.
- Gathasaptasati: Attributed to Satavahana king Hala; written in Prakrit, NOT Sanskrit. Do not attribute it to Kalidasa or any Sanskrit author.
- Amaravati stupa: Begun around 200 BCE but reconstructed in the second half of the second century CE — do not assign it entirely to one period.
- Gandhika ≠ Gandhara: Gandhika = perfumer/shopkeeper in Satavahana context; modern title Gandhi derived from it. Gandhara is the art school of the north-west. Do not mix these up.
- Senapati as provincial governor: In Satavahana administration, the (military commander) was appointed — not a purely military role. This is different from Mauryan usage.
- Satavahanas = most important native successors of Mauryas in Deccan and central India
- Puranic name = Andhras; ruled for ~300 years; earliest inscriptions = 1st century BCE
- Early inscriptions found in Maharashtra (upper Godavari valley), NOT Andhra
- Greatest competitors = Sakas
- Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106–130): defeated Nahapana; 8,000+ restruck Nahapana coins found near Nasik
- Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (AD 130–154): capital at Paithan/Pratisthan on Godavari
- Rudradaman I defeated Satavahanas twice but spared them due to matrimonial relations
- Yajna Sri Satakarni (AD 165–194): ship on coins; lover of trade and navigation
- Satavahanas ended AD 220; succeeded by Ikshvakus
- Matrilineal naming (Gautamiputra, Vasishthiputra) but patriarchal succession
- Official language: Prakrit; script: Brahmi
- Gathasaptasati: 700 Prakrit verses; attributed to king Hala
- Administrative unit: ahara (same as Asoka); officers: amatyas, mahamatras
- Senapati = provincial governor; Gaulmika = head of military regiment for rural administration
- Three grades of feudatories: Raja > Mahabhoja > Senapati
- Started practice of tax-free land grants to brahmanas and Buddhist monks
- Chaitya (temple hall) + Vihara (monastery) = two common rock-cut structures
- Most famous chaitya: Karle (western Deccan); 40m × 15m × 15m
- Amaravati stupa: dome 53m across base, ~33m high; began 200 BCE, reconstructed 2nd century CE
- Nagarjunakonda: prospered under Ikshvakus; earliest brahmanical brick temples
- Gandhi title derived from ancient term gandhika (perfumer/shopkeeper)