History · Art and Culture
India has three major calendar systems — Solar, Lunar, and Luni-Solar — each with distinct features. Key calendars include Vikram Samvat, Saka Samvat (National Calendar), Hijri, and Gregorian, each tied to specific eras, dynasties, and religious traditions.
A calendar is a system of organising days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative purposes by naming periods of time (day, week, month, year). In India, three principal astronomical systems govern calendars:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Tithi / Vasara | Lunar day (avg. 23 hrs 37 min — 23 min less than solar day) |
| Divasa | Solar day (sunrise to sunrise) |
| Ghatika | 60 palas = 24 minutes |
| Pala | 60 vipalas = 24 seconds |
| Muhurta | 2 ghatikas = 48 minutes |
| Paksha | Fortnight |
| Shukla Paksha | Bright half — starts day after new moon |
| Krishna Paksha | Dark half — starts day after full moon |
| Nakshatra | Constellation; 28 in total; 2–3 nakshatras per rashi |
Time conversions:
Panchanga accounts for five (panch) limbs (angas):
Alternately stated as: year, month, paksha, tithi, ghatika.
Two halves of the Hindu solar year:
Nakshatras: 28 in total; each rashi has 2–3 nakshatras
| Yuga | Duration | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Satya / Krta Yuga | 1,728,000 years | Golden age; truth, no disease, no agriculture needed |
| Treta Yuga | 1,296,000 years | Virtue reduced; wars began; agriculture emerged |
| Dvapara Yuga | 864,000 years | Diseases rampant; humans discontent |
| Kali Yuga | 432,000 years | Age of darkness; currently running; began 3102 BC |
| Feature | Vikram Samvat | Saka Samvat | Hijri |
|---|---|---|---|
| Type | Lunar | Luni-Solar | Lunar |
| Zero Year | 56 BC | 78 AD | 622 AD |
| Days/Year | 354 | 365 | 354 |
| New Year | Chaitra (Mar–Apr) | 22nd March | Varies |
| Adhik Masa | Yes (every 3/5 yrs) | Not specified | No |
| National Status | No | Yes (1957) | No |
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This chapter covers Introduction, Key Features of the Three Systems, Critical Terminology, Adhik Masa — Detailed Explanation, Hindu Calendar (Panchanga). It is organized as revision-ready notes followed by a linked practice quiz.
For Marking Time: India's Many Calendrical Traditions and the National Calendar, focus on definitions, dates, places, institutions, distinguishing features, and factual comparisons in the chapter. Then use the quiz to check recall and identify gaps.
Use the Marking Time: India's Many Calendrical Traditions and the National Calendar chapter headings to organize an answer framework. Connect causes, consequences, comparisons, examples, and evidence wherever the notes provide them instead of memorizing isolated facts.
| Sankraman / Sankranti |
| Sun's entry into a zodiac sign; occurs 12 times a year |
| Adhik Masa | Intercalary month added every 2.5 years to align lunar with solar year; month with no Sankranti |
| Kshaya Masa | Month with two Surya-Sankrantis — deleted/dropped month |
| Mala Masa | Another name for Adhik Masa |
| Rashi | Zodiac sign; 12 in number |
| Intercalation |
| Yes |
| Yes |
| No |