Uncoordinated Defiance: Tribal Protests and Army Mutinies in Pre-1857 India

Tribal Revolts, Sepoy Mutinies and Weaknesses of People's Uprisings Before 1857

The earlier section covered Pahariyas, Chuars, and Kols. The following major tribal revolts complete the picture of mainland tribal resistance before (and in some cases extending beyond) 1857.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820–1837)

The Raja of Parahat organised his Ho tribals to resist the British occupation of Singhbhum (present-day Jharkhand). After initial resistance, the Hos were forced to submit in 1827. However, in 1831, they rose again — this time joined by the Mundas of Chhotanagpur — to protest against the newly introduced farming revenue policy and the entry of Bengalis (outsiders) into their region. Though the revolt was suppressed in 1832, Ho operations continued until 1837.

Later Munda Uprising — Ulgulan (1899–1900): The Mundas rose again under Birsa Munda in the region south of Ranchi. Known as the Ulgulan (Great Tumult), it was one of the most significant tribal uprisings of 1860–1920. Beginning as a religious movement, it gathered political force against the introduction of feudal and zamindari tenures and exploitation by moneylenders and forest contractors. The Mundas had asserted Chhotanagpur as their territory as early as 1879. British armed forces were deployed and Birsa was captured and imprisoned.

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The Santhal Rebellion (1855–56)

Background: The Santhals, an agricultural people, had fled oppression to settle in the plains of the Rajmahal Hills (Bihar). Here too, zamindars, moneylenders, and police collaborated to dispossess them.

Course of Events: Under brothers Sidhu and Kanhu, the Santhals proclaimed an end to Company rule and declared the territory between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal as autonomous — a remarkable assertion of sovereign self-governance.

Outcome: The rebellion was suppressed by 1856 but it stands as a landmark in tribal resistance — it was not merely a local grievance but an articulation of collective territorial sovereignty.

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Khond Uprisings (1837–1856)

The Khonds of hilly tracts extending from Odisha to Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) revolted against Company rule between 1837 and 1856. They were led by Chakra Bisoi, a young raja, joined by Ghumsar, Kalahandi and other tribals. Their grievances: suppression of human sacrifice (a traditional ritual), new taxes, and zamindari intrusion into their areas. The uprising ended with Chakra Bisoi's disappearance.

A later Khond rebellion in 1914 in Odisha was triggered by the hope that foreign rule would end and they could gain autonomous governance.

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Koya Revolts (Multiple phases: 1803–1886)

The Koyas of the eastern Godavari track (modern Andhra Pradesh), joined by Khonda Sara chiefs, revolted repeatedly: 1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, and 1862. In 1879–80, they rose under Tomma Sora. After his death, Raja Anantayyar organised another rebellion in 1886.

Grievances: oppression by police and moneylenders, new regulations, and denial of customary rights over forest areas.

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Bhil Revolts (1817–19 and later)

The Bhils of the Western Ghats controlled the crucial mountain passes between north India and the Deccan. They revolted against Company rule in 1817–19 due to famine, economic distress, and misgovernment. Despite British efforts combining force and conciliation, they rose again in 1825, 1831, and 1846. Later, reformer Govind Guru organised the Bhils of south Rajasthan (Banswara, Sunth states) to fight for a Bhil Raj by 1913.

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Koli Risings (1829, 1839, 1844–48)

The Kolis, living near the Bhils, rose against Company rule in 1829, 1839, and again during 1844–48. They resented the Company's imposition of rule — which brought large-scale unemployment — and the dismantling of their forts.

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Ramosi Risings (1822–1841)

The Ramosis (hill tribes of the Western Ghats) had served the Maratha administration and lost their livelihoods when the British annexed Maratha territories. They rose under Chittur Singh in 1822, plundering around Satara. Further eruptions occurred under Umaji Naik of Poona and his supporter Bapu Trimbakji Sawant in 1825–26, continuing till 1829. The 1839 disturbance was triggered by the deposition of Raja Pratap Singh of Satara. The British generally followed a conciliatory policy, even recruiting some Ramosis into the hill police.

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North-eastern tribal revolts differed from mainland revolts in that they were driven by desires for political autonomy or independence rather than purely agrarian grievances, and they continued longer due to the later penetration of British rule.

Khasi Uprising (c. 1829–33)

After occupying the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills, the Company planned a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet. This brought large numbers of outsiders — Englishmen, Bengalis, plain labourers — into Khasi territory. The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and Singphos organised under Tirath Singh (ruler of Nunklow) to drive out the outsiders. The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule; suppressed by 1833.

Singphos Rebellion (1830s, 1839, 1843)

The early 1830 rebellion was quickly quelled but revolts continued. In 1839, a Singphos uprising resulted in the death of the British political agent of Assam. Chief Nirang Phidu led a further uprising in 1843, attacking the British garrison and killing many soldiers.

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North-East Frontier Tribal Movements — Summary Table

Before 1857:

After 1857:

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The Great Revolt of 1857 was preceded by several sporadic military uprisings that were localised but laid the psychological groundwork for 1857.

Causes of Sepoy Discontent

• Discrimination in pay and promotions: Indian sepoys were paid less and promoted slower than their British counterparts.
• Mistreatment by British officers: Contemptuous and humiliating treatment of Indian soldiers.
• Foreign service allowance denied: Sepoys sent to fight in distant regions (Sind, Burma) without the extra allowance that such hardship warranted.
• Religious grievances of high-caste Hindus: Lord Canning's General Service Enlistment Act (1856) required all recruits to be ready for service both within AND outside India — crossing the sea (kalapani) meant loss of caste for high-caste Hindus, causing deep religious outrage.
• Shared civilian grievances: Sepoys shared the broader social, religious, and economic discontents of the civilian population.

Key Examples of Religious-Social Triggers

• 1806 (Vellore): Replacement of the turban by a leather cockade caused a major mutiny — the leather offended both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
• 1824 (Barrackpore): Sepoys refused to go to Burma as crossing the sea meant loss of caste.
• 1844: Bengal Army sepoys mutinied when sent to distant Sind.

Important Pre-1857 Mutinies (Chronological)

All these mutinies were localised and ruthlessly suppressed — leaders executed, regiments disbanded. Yet their legacy fed directly into the 1857 uprising.

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Despite their scale and frequency, these uprisings failed to dislodge British rule. The reasons are analytically important for UPSC:

1. Localised in nature: Each uprising was confined to a specific region and time; there was no coordination across regions or communities.
2. Local grievances, not national consciousness: They arose from specific local complaints — there was no shared 'national' impulse binding them together. Common conditions produced similar responses, not organised collective action.
3. Backward-looking leadership: The semi-feudal leaders sought to restore the old order — reinstate zamindars, old customs, past rulers — not to create a new political order. They offered no alternative to the existing social structure.
4. Obsolete weapons and methods: The fighters used outdated arms and centuries-old tactical methods against British modern weaponry, strategy, and logistical organisation.
5. Ideological stagnation: These rebellions were centuries-old in form and cultural content — they lacked ideological innovation.
6. Susceptibility to conciliation: British authorities successfully defused many uprisings by offering concessions to those who were less obstinate — dividing leadership and mass support.
7. Absence of modern political organisation: Unlike the later national movement, these uprisings lacked political parties, newspapers, ideological manifestos, or pan-India networks.

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• GS Paper I — Tribals and Colonial Policy: The pattern of tribal revolts directly illustrates how colonial land, forest, and revenue policies systematically dispossessed indigenous communities — connecting to present-day debates on the Forest Rights Act (2006) and Schedule V/VI areas.
• Ulgulan (Birsa Munda) ↔ Modern tribal rights movements: Birsa Munda is constitutionally recognised — his birth anniversary (November 15) is Janjatiya Gaurav Divas; Jharkhand was carved out partly in his memory.
• Santhal Rebellion ↔ Assertion of territorial sovereignty: The Santhal declaration of autonomous territory between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal is an early example of tribal assertions of political sovereignty — relevant to UPSC questions on nature of pre-1857 resistance.
• Sepoy Mutinies ↔ 1857: The mutinies reveal the structural conditions that produced 1857 — they were rehearsals, not isolated events. Understanding their causes (pay, religion, foreign service) directly explains the 1857 trigger.
• Weaknesses of uprisings ↔ Why the national movement succeeded: The very weaknesses of pre-1857 movements — localisation, lack of modern organisation, backward-looking leadership — explain why the later Congress-led movement with its pan-India organisation, modern ideology, and mass participation eventually succeeded.
• Alluri Sitarama Raju (Rampa Revolts, 1922–24): A later tribal leader who used guerilla warfare; often asked about in UPSC in the context of non-cooperation and revolutionary nationalism.

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1. Sidhu and Kanhu vs Sido and Kanhu: Both spellings appear (Sidhu/Sido); both refer to the same Santhal leaders. Do not confuse with any other peasant movement leaders.
2. Santhal Rebellion location: Rajmahal Hills, Bihar — NOT the Chhotanagpur plateau (which is associated with Kols and Mundas). The Santhals settled in the PLAINS of the Rajmahal Hills.
3. Birsa Munda's Ulgulan: Often described as beginning as a religious movement that became political. Questions may ask whether it was purely agrarian — it was NOT; it was a multi-dimensional tribal movement against zamindari tenures, moneylenders, and forest contractors.
4. Khasi Uprising leader: Tirath Singh was the ruler of Nunklow, not a separate war chief. The tribes involved were Khasis, Garos, Khamptis AND Singphos — questions may ask which tribes united.
5. Vellore Mutiny (1806) — flag confusion: The Vellore mutiny raised the flag of the ruler of Mysore (Tipu Sultan's family), NOT any national or religious flag. The trigger was the leather cockade replacing the turban.
6. General Service Enlistment Act 1856: Associated with Lord Canning, not Dalhousie. Questions sometimes swap these governors. Dalhousie is associated with Doctrine of Lapse; Canning's Act relates to sepoy overseas service.
7. Chakra Bisoi vs Chakra Bisnoi: Both spellings used in different sources for the Khond leader — accept both in exam context.
8. Faraizi founder confusion: Haji Shariat-Allah founded the Faraizi sect; Dadu Mian was his son who organised followers against zamindars. The Spectrum summary says 'Shariat-Allah, son of Dadu Mian' — this is a printing/editing error in some editions. The correct order is: Haji Shariat-Allah (founder) → Dadu Mian (son and organiser). Be careful with questions that present this reversed.
9. Alluri Sitarama Raju: Associated with and the — not with any Bengal or Bihar movement. Executed/captured in .

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• Ho tribals (1820–37): Raja of Parahat; Singhbhum; joined by Mundas in 1831 against farming revenue policy
• Ulgulan (1899–1900): Birsa Munda; south of Ranchi; against zamindari tenures and forest exploitation
• Santhal Rebellion (1855–56): Sidhu and Kanhu; Rajmahal Hills Bihar; declared autonomy between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal
• Khond Uprisings (1837–56): Chakra Bisoi; Odisha to Andhra; against suppression of human sacrifice, new taxes
• Koya Revolts: Tomma Sora (1879–80), Raja Anantayyar (1886); Eastern Godavari; forest rights
• Bhil Revolts: 1817–19, later Govind Guru for Bhil Raj (1913); Western Ghats and S. Rajasthan
• Ramosi leaders: Chittur Singh (1822); Umaji Naik of Poona (1825–26)
• Khasi Uprising: Tirath Singh (Nunklow ruler); Khasis + Garos + Khamptis + Singphos; suppressed 1833
• Singphos 1839: killed British political agent of Assam; Nirang Phidu led 1843 uprising
• Vellore Mutiny 1806: leather cockade replaced turban; raised Mysore ruler's flag
• General Service Enlistment Act 1856: Lord Canning; overseas service mandatory; triggered high-caste Hindu outrage
• Sepoy mutinies: 1764 → 1806 → 1824 → 1825 → 1838 → 1844 → 1849 → 1850 → 1852
• Weaknesses of uprisings: localised, local grievances, backward-looking leadership, obsolete weapons, no national consciousness, susceptible to conciliation
• Alluri Sitarama Raju: Rampa Revolts 1922–24; Koya tribals; Andhra; executed 1924
• Naga Movement: Jadonang; Heraka Cult: Gaidinliu (1930s Manipur)