The Age of the Mauryas

The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who seems to have belonged to some ordinary family. According to the brahmanical tradition he was born of Mura, a sudra woman in the court of the Nandas. But an earlier Buddhist tradition speaks of the existence of a kshatriya clan called Mauryas living in the region of Gorakhpur adjoining the Nepalese terai - in all likelihood Chandragupta was a member of this clan.

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Overthrow of the Nandas

• Chandragupta took advantage of the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule.
• With the help of Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.
• According to Justin (a Greek writer), Chandragupta overran the whole of India with an army of 600,000 - this may or may not be true.

Liberation of North-West India

• Chandragupta liberated north-western India from the thraldom of Seleucus, who ruled over the area west of the Indus.
• In the war with the Greek viceroy, Chandragupta came out victorious.
• Eventually peace was concluded between the two - in return for 500 elephants, Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the area west of the Indus.
• Chandragupta thus built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of Orissa and Bengal, but also western and north-western India, and the Deccan.
• Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of north-eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent.
• In the north-west they held sway over certain areas which were not included even in the British empire.

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Sources

We know about the Mauryan administration from two key sources:

1. Account of Megasthenes - Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya; lived in the Maurya capital of Pataliputra; wrote an account of the administration of the city of Pataliputra and the Maurya empire as a whole. The account does not survive in full but quotations occur in the works of several subsequent Greek writers - collected and published in the form of a book which throws valuable light on the administration, society, and economy of Maurya times.
2. Arthasastra of Kautilya - compiled a few centuries after the Maurya rule; some of its books contain material that is genuine and gives authentic information about the Maurya administration and economy.

Nature of Rule

• Chandragupta Maurya was evidently an autocrat who concentrated all power in his hands.
• According to the Arthasastra, the king had set a high ideal - stated that in the happiness of his subjects lay his happiness and in their troubles lay his troubles.
• According to Megasthenes, the king was assisted by a council whose members were noted for wisdom - their advice was not binding on the king, but from the councillors were chosen the high officers.

Provincial Organisation

• The empire was divided into a number of provinces - each province placed under a prince who was a scion of the royal dynasty.
• The provinces were divided into still smaller units.
• Most important cities: Pataliputra, Kausambi, Ujjain, and Taxila.
• Administration of Pataliputra was carried on by six committees, each committee consisting of five members.
• These committees were entrusted with:
  • Sanitation
  • Care of foreigners
  • Registration of birth and death
  • Regulation of weights and measures
  • And similar other functions.
• Various types of weights belonging to Maurya times have been found at several places in Bihar.
• In addition to these six committees the central government maintained about two dozen departments of the state, which controlled social and economic activities at least in the areas near the capital.

The Army

• The most striking feature of Chandragupta's administration is the maintenance of a huge army.
• According to the account of a Roman writer called Pliny, Chandragupta maintained:
  • 600,000 foot-soldiers
  • 30,000 cavalry
  • 9000 elephants
• Another source tells us that the Mauryas also maintained 8,000 chariots.
• In addition it seems that the Mauryas also maintained a navy.
• The administration of the armed forces was carried on by a board of 30 officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of five members.
• Six wings of the armed forces - army, cavalry, elephants, chariots, navy, and transport - were each assigned to the care of a separate committee.
• The Mauryan military strength was almost three times that of the Nandas - apparently on account of a much larger empire and far more resources.

Economy and Taxation

• According to the Arthasastra of Kautilya, the state controlled almost all economic activities in the realm.
• The state brought new land under cultivation with the help of cultivators and sudra labourers.
• Virgin land opened to cultivation yielded handsome income to the state in the form of revenue collected from newly settled peasants.
• Taxes collected from the peasants varied from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.
• Those who were provided with irrigation facilities by the state had to pay for it.
• In addition, in times of emergency peasants were compelled to raise more crops.
• Tolls were levied on commodities brought to town for sale - collected at the gates.
• The state also enjoyed a monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms, etc. - naturally brought money to the royal exchequer.
• Chandragupta established a well-organised administrative system and gave it a sound financial base.

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Background

• Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara, whose reign is important for continued links with the Greek princes.
• His son Asoka is the greatest of the Maurya rulers.
• According to Buddhist tradition, he was so cruel in his early life that he killed his 99 brothers to get the throne - but since the statement is based on a legend, it may well be wrong. His biography, prepared by Buddhist writers, is so full of fiction that it cannot be taken seriously.

Asokan Edicts - Sources

• We can reconstruct the history of Asoka on the basis of his inscriptions.
• He is the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions.
• They were engraved on rocks, on polished stone pillars mounted by capitals, and in the caves.
• Found not only in the Indian subcontinent but also in Kandhar in Afghanistan.
• These inscriptions are in the form of 44 royal orders, and each royal order has several copies.
• Inscriptions were composed in Prakrit language and written in the Brahmi script throughout the greater part of the empire.
• But in the north-western part they appear in Kharosthi script, and in Kandhar in Afghanistan they were written even in Aramaic and Greek script.
• Generally placed on ancient highways - they throw light on the career of Asoka, his external and domestic policies, and the extent of his empire.

The Kalinga War and Its Impact

• After his accession to the throne Asoka fought only one major war - the Kalinga war.
• According to him:
  • 100,000 people were killed in this war
  • 150,000 were taken prisoners
• The war brought great suffering to brahmana priests and Buddhist monks - caused Asoka much grief and remorse.
• So he abandoned the policy of physical occupation (bherighosha) in favour of a policy of cultural conquest (dhammaghosha).
• Asoka quotes from his 13th Major Rock Edict:

When he had been consecrated eight years the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, conquered Kalinga. A hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and many times that number perished. Afterwards, now that Kalinga was annexed, the Beloved of the Gods very earnestly practised Dhamma... The Beloved of the Gods considers victory by Dhamma to be the foremost victory.

• Asoka made an ideological appeal towards the tribal peoples and the frontier kingdoms.
• The subjects of the independent states in Kalinga were asked to obey the king as their father and to repose confidence in him.
• Officials appointed by Asoka were instructed to propagate this idea among all sections of his subjects.
• Tribal peoples were similarly asked to follow the principles of dhamma.
• Asoka no longer treated foreign dominions as legitimate areas for military conquest - he tried to conquer them ideologically.
• He took steps for the welfare of men and animals in foreign lands - sent ambassadors of peace to the Greek kingdoms in Western Asia and Greece.

Asoka's Dhamma

• Asoka was converted to Buddhism as a result of the Kalinga war.
• According to tradition he became a monk, made huge gifts to the Buddhists, and undertook pilgrimages to the Buddhist shrines.
• The fact of his visiting the Buddhist shrines is also suggested by the dharma yatras mentioned in his inscriptions.
• According to tradition the Buddhist council was held under the chairmanship of Asoka's brother - missionaries were sent not only to south India but also to Sri Lanka, Burma, and other countries to convert the people.
• The Lumbini pillar inscription (Rummindei Pillar Inscription) - exempted the village of Lumbini from bali (tribute) and bhaga (the royal share of the produce) was reduced to one-eighth.

Key features of Asoka's Dhamma:

• Asoka's dhamma was not a narrow dhamma - it cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith.
• Its broad objective was to preserve the social order.
• It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to brahmanas and Buddhist monks, and show mercy to slaves and servants.
• He disapproved of rituals, especially those observed by women.
• He forbade killing of certain birds and animals, and completely prohibited the slaughter of animals in the capital.
• He interdicted gay social functions in which people indulged in revelries.
• He emphasised compassion towards animals and proper behaviour towards relatives.
• His teachings were meant to strengthen the institution of family and the existing social classes.
• He held that if the people behaved well they would attain heaven - he never said that they would attain nirvana (which was the goal of Buddhist teachings).
• Asoka's teachings were thus intended to maintain the existing social order on the basis of tolerance.
• He does not seem to have preached any sectarian faith.

Officers appointed for Dhamma:

• Dharmamahamattas: appointed for propagating dharma among various social groups including women.
• Rajukas: appointed for the administration of justice in his empire - vested with the authority of not only rewarding people but also punishing them, wherever necessary.

Asoka's Place in History

• It is said that the pacific policy of Asoka ruined the Maurya empire - but this is not true.
• On the contrary Asoka has a number of achievements to his credit.
• He was certainly the greatest missionary ruler in the history of the ancient world - worked with great zeal and devotion to his mission and achieved a lot both at home and abroad.
• Asoka brought about the political unification of the country; bound it further by one dharma, one language, and practically one script (Brahmi) - used in most of his inscriptions.
• In unifying the country he respected such scripts as Brahmi, Kharosthi, Aramaic, and Greek - also accommodated such languages as Greek, Prakrit, and Sanskrit and various religious sects.
• Asoka followed a tolerant religious policy - did not try to foist his Buddhist faith on his subjects; made gifts to non-Buddhist and even anti-Buddhist sects.
• Asoka was fired with zeal for missionary activities - deputed officials in the farflung parts of the empire; helped cause of administration and also promoted cultural contacts between the developed Gangetic basin and the backward distant provinces.
• Material culture, typical of the heart of the empire, spread to Kalinga and the lower Deccan and northern Bengal.
• Above all, Asoka is important in history for his policy of peace, non-aggression, and cultural conquest - he had no model in early Indian history for pursuing such a policy, nor did such an example exist in any country except Egypt where Akhnaton had pursued a pacific policy in the fourteenth century BC.
• Although Kautilya advised the king to be always intent on physical conquest, Asoka followed just the reverse policy.
• He asked his successors to give up the policy of conquest and aggression - counselled them to adopt a policy of peace, which was badly needed after a period of aggressive wars lasting for .

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• The Mauryan empire was the first and largest empire in Indian history - covering nearly the entire subcontinent.
• The administrative system devised by the Mauryas - with its provinces, city administration committees, professional army, and bureaucracy - set the template for Indian statecraft.
• The Arthasastra of Kautilya, though compiled later, contains authentic material about Mauryan administration and is one of the most important texts in the history of ancient Indian political thought.
• Asoka's inscriptions are the first reliable historical documents in India - providing dated records and enabling secure Indian chronology.
• The Mauryan age represents the culmination of the political, economic, and social processes set in motion in the age of the Buddha.

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• GS Paper I - Ancient India: The Mauryan empire is the benchmark of ancient Indian political achievement - essential for understanding India's administrative, economic, and cultural history.
• Art and Architecture: Asokan pillars (bellshaped capitals with Iranian influence), rock-cut caves, edicts - foundational for the history of Indian art and epigraphy.
• Dhamma and Non-violence: Asoka's dhammaghosha replacing bherighosha - a historic shift from military to cultural diplomacy; connects to Gandhi's non-violence and modern soft power.
• Epigraphy as Historical Source: Asoka's inscriptions (44 royal orders, Brahmi script, Prakrit language) are the earliest reliable historical documents in India - relevant to questions about sources of ancient Indian history.
• Interlink: Alexander's invasion -> Chandragupta Maurya (saw Alexander's military machine) -> Mauryan empire -> Asoka -> Buddhism as world religion -> Post-Mauryan fragmentation.
• Kautilya's Arthasastra: One of the earliest texts on statecraft in world history - precursor to Machiavelli's The Prince in its realistic approach to governance.

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1. Chandragupta got Afghanistan + Baluchistan from Seleucus in exchange for 500 ELEPHANTS - NOT gold or territory: Students often confuse the nature of the exchange. Chandragupta gave 500 elephants to Seleucus and received eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and area west of the Indus.

2. Megasthenes was sent by SELEUCUS (NOT Alexander) to the court of CHANDRAGUPTA (NOT Asoka): A classic confusion. Megasthenes was Seleucus's ambassador to Chandragupta's court at Pataliputra.

3. The Arthasastra was finally compiled a FEW CENTURIES AFTER the Maurya rule - NOT during Chandragupta's reign: Though some books contain authentic material about Mauryan administration, the text as a whole was compiled later.

4. Pataliputra's administration was carried on by SIX committees, each of FIVE members - the ARMY was SEPARATELY administered by 30 officers in six committees of five members each: Students often confuse the six committees for city administration with the six committees for army administration. These are two different sets of six committees.

5. Asoka's Kalinga war: 100,000 killed, 150,000 taken prisoner - NOT the other way around: Students frequently reverse these figures. 100,000 killed; 150,000 deported/prisoners.

6. Asoka abandoned bherighosha (physical occupation) in favour of dhammaghosha (cultural conquest) - NOT total pacifism: He retained Kalinga after conquering it and maintained a huge army. He did not wage any war AFTER Kalinga - but he did not disband the army.

7. Asoka said people would attain HEAVEN if they behaved well - he NEVER said they would attain nirvana: This distinction is crucial. Asoka's dhamma was intended to maintain the existing social order, not to promote Buddhist nirvana-seeking.

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• Maurya dynasty founded by: Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya/Kautilya
• Chandragupta's caste: brahmanical tradition = sudra; Buddhist tradition = kshatriya (Maurya clan, Gorakhpur region)
• Exchange with Seleucus: Chandragupta gave 500 elephants -> received eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, area west of the Indus
• Megasthenes: Greek ambassador of Seleucus to Chandragupta's court at Pataliputra
• Army of Chandragupta (per Pliny): 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants + 8000 chariots
• Mauryan military = three times that of the Nandas
• Army administration: board of 30 officers -> six committees of five members each -> six wings: army, cavalry, elephants, chariots, navy, transport
• Pataliputra city administration: six committees of five members each
• Tax rate under Mauryas: one-fourth to one-sixth of produce
• Asoka: 273-232 BC; greatest Maurya ruler
• Asoka's edicts: 44 royal orders; Prakrit language + Brahmi script (most); north-west = Kharosthi; Kandhar = Aramaic and Greek
• Kalinga war: 100,000 killed, 150,000 prisoners; only ONE major war of Asoka