Persia and Alexander: Foreign Incursions and Their Impact on Ancient India

Iranian and Macedonian Invasions of India

In north-east India, smaller principalities and republics gradually merged with the Magadhan empire. But the north-west India presented a different picture in the first half of the sixth century BC:

• Several small principalities (such as those of the Kambojas, Gandharas, and Madras) fought one another.
• The area did NOT have any powerful kingdom like that of Magadha to weld the warring communities into one organised kingdom.
• The area was wealthy and could be easily entered through the passes in the Hindukush.
• This political disunity and wealth made north-west India an attractive target for foreign invasion.

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Darius I and the Indian Satrapy

• The Achaemenian rulers of Iran expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan princes took advantage of political disunity on the north-west frontier.
• The Iranian ruler Darius I penetrated into north-west India in 516 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.
• This area constituted the twentieth province or satrapy of Iran - the total number of satrapies in the Iranian empire being 28.
• The Indian satrapy included Sindh, the north-west frontier, and the part of Punjab that lay to the west of the Indus.
• It was the most fertile and populous part of the empire - paid a tribute of 360 talents of gold, which accounted for one-third of the total revenue of Iran from its Asian provinces.
• Indian subjects were also enrolled in the Iranian army.
• Xerxes (successor of Darius) employed the Indians in the long war against the Greeks.
• It appears that India continued to be a part of the Iranian empire till Alexander's invasion of India.

Results of the Indo-Iranian Contact

The Indo-Iranian contact lasted for about 200 years. Its results:

1. Trade and Commerce: Gave an impetus to Indo-Iranian trade and commerce.

2. Kharosthi Script:

   • The Iranian scribes brought into India a form of writing known as the Kharosthi script.
   • It was written from right to left like the Arabic.
   • Some Asokan inscriptions in north-west India were written in this script in the third century BC.
   • The Kharosthi script continued to be used in the country till the third century AD.
   • Iranian coins are also found in the north-west frontier region - points to trade with Iran.
   • However, it is wrong to think that the punch-marked coins continued in India as a result of contact with Iran.

3. Mauryan Art - Iranian Influence:

   • Iranian influence on the Maurya sculpture is clearly perceptible.
   • The monuments of Asoka's time, especially the bellshaped capitals, owed something to the Iranian models.
   • Iranian influence may also be traced in the preamble of Asoka's edicts as well as in certain words used in them.
   • For instance, for the Iranian term dipi, the Asokan scribe used the term .

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Background

• In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world.
• Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks finally destroyed the Iranian empire.
• Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iran but also marched to India - obviously attracted by its great wealth.
• Herodotus (called the father of history) and other Greek writers had painted India as a fabulous land, which tempted Alexander to invade.
• Alexander possessed a strong passion for geographical inquiry and natural history.
• He had heard that on the eastern side of India was the continuation of the Caspian Sea.
• He was also inspired by the mythical exploits of past conquerors whom he wanted to emulate and surpass.

Political Condition of North-West India

• North-west India was parcelled out into many independent monarchies and tribal republics - strongly wedded to the soil and with a fierce love of the principality over which they ruled.
• Alexander found it easy to conquer these principalities one by one - they could not put up a joint front; the Khyber pass remained unguarded.
• Two rulers of these territories were well-known:
  • Ambhi - prince of Taxila
  • Porus - whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab

Course of Alexander's Campaign

1. After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched to India through the Khyber pass.
2. It took him five months to reach the Indus.
3. Ambhi (ruler of Taxila) readily submitted - augmented Alexander's army and replenished his treasure.
4. When he reached the Jhelum, Alexander met from Porus the first and the strongest resistance.
5. Although Alexander defeated Porus, he was impressed by the bravery and courage of the Indian prince - he restored his kingdom to him and made him his ally.
6. He then advanced as far as the Beas river.
7. He wanted to move still further eastward but his army refused to accompany him - Greek soldiers had grown war-weary and disease-stricken after 10 years of continuous campaigning. The hot climate of India had made them terribly homesick. They had also experienced a taste of Indian fighting qualities on the banks of the Indus.
8. According to the Greek historian Arrian: "In the art of war the Indians were far superior to the other nations inhabiting the area at that time."
9. The Greek soldiers were told of a formidable power on the Ganga - obviously the kingdom of Magadha ruled by the Nandas, who maintained an army far outnumbering that of Alexander.
10. Despite the repeated appeals of Alexander to advance, the Greek soldiers did not budge an inch.
11. Alexander lamented: "I am trying to rouse the hearts that are disloyal and crushed with craven fears."

Return Journey

• On his return march, Alexander vanquished many small republics till he reached the end of the Indian frontier.
• He remained in India for 19 months (326-325 BC) - full of fighting; barely any time to organise his conquests.
• Most conquered states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority.
• His own territorial possessions were divided into three parts, placed under three Greek governors.
• He also founded a number of cities to maintain his power in this area.
• He was deeply interested in the geography of the mysterious ocean which he saw for the first time at the mouth of the Indus.
• He despatched his new fleet under his friend Nearchus to explore the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of the Euphrates.

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1. First Direct Contact Between Europe and India

• Alexander's invasion provided the first occasion when ancient Europe came into close contact with ancient India.
• It produced important results.

2. Opening of Trade Routes

• The Indian campaign of Alexander was a triumphant success - he added to his empire an Indian province much larger than that conquered by Iran.
• The campaign opened up four distinct routes by land and sea.
• It paved the way for Greek merchants and craftsmen and increased the existing facilities for trade.

3. Establishment of Greek Settlements

• Although we hear of some Greeks living on the north-west even before the invasion of Alexander, the invasion led to the establishment of more Greek settlements in this area.
• The most important were:
  • City of Alexandria in the Kabul region
  • Boukephala on the Jhelum
  • Alexandria in Sindh
• Although the areas were later conquered by the Mauryas, the settlements were not wiped out - some Greeks continued to live in this area under both Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka.

4. Geographical Knowledge

• Alexander was deeply interested in geography.
• His historians left valuable geographical accounts and clearly dated records of Alexander's campaign - enabling us to build Indian chronology for subsequent events on a definite basis.
• Alexander's historians also gave important information about social and economic conditions - they tell us about:
  • The sati system
  • The sale of girls in market places by poor parents
  • The fine breed of oxen in north-west India (Alexander sent 200,000 oxen to Macedonia for use in Greece)
  • The art of carpentry - the most flourishing craft in India (carpenters built chariots, boats, and ships)

5. Paving the Way for the Maurya Empire

• By destroying the power of petty states in north-west India, Alexander's invasion paved the way for the expansion of the Maurya empire in that area.
• According to tradition, Chandragupta Maurya (who founded the Maurya empire) had seen something of the working of the military machine of Alexander and had acquired some knowledge which helped him in destroying the power of the Nandas.

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• The Iranian invasion (516 BC) and Alexander's invasion (326 BC) together represent the first sustained contact between India and the western world.
• The cultural exchange - Kharosthi script, Achaemenid artistic influence on Mauryan art, and Greek geographical knowledge - had lasting consequences for Indian history.
• Alexander's invasion was a watershed event in ancient Indian history - it directly contributed to the conditions that enabled Chandragupta Maurya to overthrow the Nandas and establish the Mauryan empire.
• The Greek historians' accounts of India provide the earliest reliable chronological anchors for ancient Indian history.

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• GS Paper I - Ancient India: The Iranian and Macedonian invasions are entry points for understanding ancient India's connections with the wider world - relevant to themes of external influence on Indian culture and art.
• Art and Architecture: The Iranian influence on Mauryan art (bellshaped capitals, polish) is a direct consequence of the Achaemenid contact - connecting the Iranian invasion to the study of Mauryan art.
• Script and Language: The Kharosthi script (brought by Iranian scribes, used in Asokan inscriptions in north-west India till 3rd century AD) illustrates how external contacts shape indigenous cultural tools.
• Chronology: Alexander's historians' clearly dated records provide the basis for building Indian chronology - a methodological point about the sources of ancient Indian history.
• Interlink: Iranian invasion <-> Kharosthi script <-> Asokan edicts; Alexander's invasion <-> Chandragupta Maurya <-> Mauryan empire.
• Military History: Porus's resistance, Indian fighting qualities (acknowledged by Arrian), and the Nanda army's deterrent effect on Alexander all illustrate the military strength of India in the fourth century BC.

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1. Darius I invaded India in 516 BC - NOT Darius III (who was defeated by Alexander): Darius I is the Iranian ruler who invaded; Darius III is the one Alexander defeated. Students frequently confuse the two Darian rulers.

2. The Indian satrapy was the TWENTIETH province of the Iranian empire (out of 28 total), NOT the richest of all 28 satrapies per se: It paid 360 talents of gold = one-third of Iran's total revenue from Asian provinces - it was the most fertile and populous.

3. Kharosthi script was written from RIGHT TO LEFT like Arabic - NOT from left to right: A specific and frequently tested fact. It was brought by Iranian scribes, used in Asokan inscriptions in north-west India in the third century BC, and continued till the third century AD.

4. Punch-marked coins did NOT continue in India as a result of Iranian contact: RS Sharma explicitly states it is WRONG to think that punch-marked coins continued in India as a result of contact with Iran - students frequently assume the coins were an Iranian influence.

5. Alexander remained in India for 19 MONTHS (326-325 BC), NOT years: The 19-month duration is specific and testable.

6. Porus was NOT subdued willingly - he gave the STRONGEST resistance: Unlike Ambhi (Taxila) who readily submitted, Porus was described as giving the 'first and the strongest resistance.' Alexander was so impressed by Porus's bravery that he restored his kingdom.

7. Alexander's army stopped at the BEAS RIVER, NOT the Indus: He crossed the Indus and Jhelum, reached the Beas (Hyphasis) where his army refused to go further. Students confuse the stopping point.

8. The Kharosthi script was brought by IRANIAN SCRIBES - NOT by Alexander's Greeks: The script is a consequence of the IRANIAN invasion, not the Greek/Macedonian one. Students confuse which invasion brought which cultural influence.

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• Iranian invasion: Darius I, 516 BC - annexed Punjab (west of Indus) and Sindh
• Indian satrapy = twentieth province out of 28 total Iranian satrapies
• Tribute paid by Indian satrapy: 360 talents of gold = one-third of Iran's total revenue from Asian provinces
• Kharosthi script: brought by Iranian scribes; written right to left (like Arabic); used in Asokan inscriptions in north-west India till third century AD
• Indo-Iranian contact lasted: ~200 years
• Iranian influence on Mauryan art: bellshaped capitals; preamble of Asoka's edicts; word lipi (from Iranian dipi)
• Punch-marked coins: NOT a result of Iranian contact
• Alexander of Macedonia: invaded India fourth century BC; destroyed Iranian empire
• Two key rulers of north-west India: Ambhi (Taxila, submitted readily) and Porus (between Jhelum and Chenab, gave strongest resistance)
• Alexander entered India via Khyber pass from Kabul; took five months to reach the Indus
• Porus: defeated but his kingdom restored by Alexander (impressed by bravery)
• Alexander advanced to: Beas river - army refused to go further
• Arrian's quote: