Ancient India's Gifts to Humanity: Mathematics, Medicine, Metallurgy, and Philosophy

Legacy in Science and Civilization (Ancient India)

Chapter 27 is the concluding synthesis of RS Sharma's Ancient India. It surveys the civilisational legacy of ancient India across religion, philosophy, science, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, crafts, geography, art, literature, and education. While the chapter celebrates India's achievements, RS Sharma maintains his characteristic analytical balance — noting both the strengths and limitations of ancient Indian civilisation, and emphasising that religion exercised a far stronger influence in India than in Greece or Rome, shaping every domain of life from economy to art.

This chapter is a high-yield topic for UPSC: almost every paragraph contains a specific, testable fact about a scholar, text, date, or discovery.

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• Despite towns in Harappan times, and again from Maurya to Gupta period, ancient Indian civilisation was not as urban as Greece and Rome — most of the subcontinent was hundreds of kilometres from the sea-coast, could not develop much trade, and life remained primarily agrarian and immobile.
• Religion exercised a far stronger influence in India than in western cultures — every field (economy, polity, art, literature) was strongly influenced by religion. In addition to Hinduism, India gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.
• Christianity came to India in about the first century AD but did not make much headway in ancient times.
• Buddhism disappeared from India but spread as far as Japan in the east and Central Asia in the north-west — projecting Indian art, language, and literature into neighbouring areas.
• In India, varna laws enjoyed the sanction of both the state and religion — functions of priests, warriors, peasants, and labourers were defined in law and supposed to be laid down by divine agencies.
• Those who departed from their functions were subjected to secular punishments as well as rituals and penances, differing according to varnas.
• Each varna was given not only a social but also a ritualistic recognition — varnas/social classes and jatis/castes came to be regarded hereditary in the eyes of law and religion.
• The entire arrangement was to ensure vaisyas produce and pay taxes and sudras serve as labourers so that brahmanas act as priests and kshatriyas as rulers.
• The Bhagavadgita taught that people should lay down their lives in defence of their own dharma rather than adopt the dharma of others — this lessened the intensity and frequency of tensions and conflicts between producing classes and those who lived off them (princes, priests, officials, soldiers, big merchants).
• Hence the necessity for exercising coercion against the lower orders was not so strong in ancient India as what was done by slaves and other producing sections in Greece and Rome under the threat of the whip — vaisyas and sudras acted out of conviction formed through brahmanical indoctrination.

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• Indian thinkers looked upon the world as illusion and deliberated deeply on the relation between the soul and God.
• No other country's philosophers delved so deeply into this problem as the Indians did — Ancient India is considered famous for its contribution to philosophy and spiritualism.
• But Indians also developed a materialistic view of the world — in the six systems of philosophy created, we find elements of materialist philosophy in the Sankhya system of Kapila (born around 580 BC).
  • Kapila believed the soul can attain liberation only through real knowledge.
  • Real knowledge can be acquired through observation, inference, and words.
  • The Sankhya system does not recognise the existence of God — the world has not been created by God but by nature, and human life is regulated by natural forces.
• Materialist philosophy received its greatest impetus from Charvaka (lived in about the sixth century BC) — his philosophy is known as lokayata.
  • He argued that what is not experienced by man through his sensual organs does not really exist.
  • It implies that gods do not exist.
• Indians thus developed both the idealist (Upanishads) and materialist (Sankhya, Lokayata/Charvaka) systems of philosophy.
• The idealist system taught that the world is an illusion and ignorance — people were asked by the Upanishads to abandon the world and strive for real knowledge.

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Grammar and Linguistics

• Ancient brahmanas stressed that every Vedic prayer and every mantra should be recited with meticulous correctness — this gave rise to the science of grammar and linguistics.
• The first result of the scientific outlook of Indians was the production of Sanskrit grammar.
• In the fourth century BC, Panini systematised the rules governing Sanskrit and produced a grammar called the Ashtadhyayi.

Mathematics: Three Distinct Contributions

By the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine began to develop separately. The ancient Indians made three distinct contributions to mathematics:

1. The notation system
2. The decimal system
3. The use of zero

• The earliest epigraphic evidence for the use of the decimal system is in the beginning of the fifth century AD.
• The Indian notational system was adopted by the Arabs who spread it in the Western world.
• Indian numerals are called Arabic in English, but the Arabs themselves called their numerals hindsa.
• Before these numerals appeared in the West, they had been used in India for centuries — they are found in the inscriptions of Asoka, written in the third century BC.
• The Indians were the first to use the decimal system.
• Aryabhata (AD 476–500) was acquainted with the decimal system.
• Zero was discovered by the Indians in about the second century BC.
• From the very beginning, Indian mathematicians considered zero as a separate numeral, used in sums of arithmetic.
• In Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in AD 873 — the Arabs learnt and adopted it from India and spread it in Europe.
• As far as algebra is concerned, both Indians and Greeks contributed to it, but in Western Europe its knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but from the Arabs who had acquired it from India.

Geometry

• In the second century BC, Apastamba produced a practical geometry for the construction of altars at which kings could offer sacrifices.
  • It describes acute angle, obtuse angle, right angle.
  • Aryabhata formulated the rule for finding the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry.
• The most famous work of this time is the Suryasiddhanta — the like of which is not found in contemporary ancient East.

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The two most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhata and Varahamihira:

Aryabhata (5th century AD)

• Calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian method.
• Discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses.
• Measured the circumference of the earth — considered correct even now.
• Pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates.
• His book is called the Aryabhatiya.

Varahamihira (6th century AD)

• His well-known work is the Brihatsamhita (belongs to the sixth century AD).
• Stated that the moon rotates round the earth and the earth rotates round the sun.
• Utilised several Greek works to explain the movement of the planets and other astronomical problems.
• Although Greek knowledge influenced Indian astronomy, the Indians pursued the subject further and made use of it in their own observations of the planets.

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• Ancient Indian physicians studied anatomy — devised methods to diagnose diseases and prescribed medicines.
• Earliest mention of medicines is in the Atharva Veda — but as in other ancient societies, the remedies were replete with magical charms and spells, and medicine could not develop along scientific lines.
• In post-Maurya times India produced two famous scholars of the Ayurveda: Susruta and Charaka.

Susruta

• The Susrutasamhita describes the method of operating cataract and stone disease and several other ailments.
• Mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for operations.
• In the treatment of disease he lays special emphasis on diet and cleanliness.

Charaka

• Wrote the Charakasamhita in the second century AD — like an encyclopaedia of Indian medicine.
• Describes various types of fever, leprosy, hysteria (mirgi), and tuberculosis.
• Possibly Charaka did not know that some of these are infectious.
• His book contains the names of a large number of plants and herbs used as medicine — useful for the study of ancient Indian flora and chemistry.
• In subsequent centuries, Indian medicine developed on the lines laid down by Charaka.

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• It would be wrong to think that Indians made no progress in materialist culture — they attained proficiency in several fields of production.
• Dyeing: Indian craftsmen were great experts in dyeing and making various kinds of colours.
  • The basic colours made in India were so shining and lasting that the beautiful paintings of Ajanta and Ellora are still intact.
  • Indian dyers invented lasting colours and also discovered the blue colour.
• Steel: Indians were great experts in the art of making steel — developed first in India.
  • Indian steel was exported to many countries from very early times and came to be called wootz in later times.
  • No other country in the world could manufacture such steel swords as those made by Indian craftsmen — in great demand from Asia to Europe.

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• Ancient Indians made some contribution to geography — had little knowledge of lands outside India, but rivers, mountain ranges, places of pilgrimage, and different regions of the country are described in the epics and Puranas.
• Although acquainted with China and Western countries, they neither had any clear idea of where they lay nor of their distances from India.
• In early times, ancient Indians obtained some knowledge of navigation and contributed to the craft of shipbuilding.
• But since important political powers had their seats of power far away from the coast and since there was no danger from the sea side, ancient Indian princes did not pay any particular attention to navigation.

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• As regards political organisation, India was the only other country with Greece to make experiments in some kind of democracy.
• The country also produced a great ruler in Asoka — who, in spite of his great victory over Kalinga, adopted a policy of peace and non-aggression.
• Asoka and several other Indian kings practised religious toleration and stressed that the wishes of followers of other religions should be respected.

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Craftsmanship and Architecture

• The monolithic pillars erected by Asoka are famous for their shining polish, which matches with the polish on Northern Black Polished ware — still a mystery how craftsmen could achieve this kind of polish on pillars and pottery.
• The Mauryan polished pillars were mounted by statues of animals, especially lions — the lion capital has been adopted as the national emblem of the Government of India.

Ajanta

• Ajanta is the birth-place of Asian art — contains as many as 30 cave temples, constructed between the second century BC and the seventh century AD.
• Paintings appeared in the second century AD — most belong to Gupta times.
• Themes were borrowed from stories about previous incarnations of the Buddha and from ancient literature.
• The lines and colours used at Ajanta display a proficiency not found in the world before the renaissance in Europe.
• Indian art spread to Central Asia and China at one end and to South-East Asia on the other.
• The focal point for the spread of Indian art into Afghanistan and neighbouring Central Asia was Gandhara.
• Elements of Indian art were fused with Central Asian and Hellenistic art → giving rise to the Gandhara style.
• The first statue of the Buddha was fashioned in this style — although features are Indian, the size, presentation of head, and drapery show Greek influence.
• Temples constructed in south India served in some ways as models for the construction of temples in South-East Asia — including Ankorvat (Angkor Wat) in Kampuchea and Borobudur in Java.

Education: Nalanda

• Nalanda — the huge monastic establishment — attracted students not only from different parts of India but also from Tibet and China.
• Standards of examination were stiff — only those who could pass the test prescribed by the dvarapandita (scholar at the gate) could be admitted.
• Nalanda is one of the earliest examples of a residential-cum-teaching institution which housed thousands of monks devoted to learning, philosophy, and meditation.

Literature

• In literature, Indians produced the Rig Veda — the earliest specimen of Indo-Aryan literature, on the basis of which an attempt has been made to determine the nature of Aryan culture.
• In Gupta times we have the works of Kalidasa — whose play Abhijnanasakuntalam has been translated into all the important languages of the world.

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• GS Paper I (Indian Culture): This chapter is the direct source for UPSC culture questions on ancient Indian contributions to science, art, philosophy, and mathematics.
• India's Soft Power: Aryabhata, Nalanda, Ajanta, Kalidasa, steel (wootz), zero — all testable as markers of India's ancient civilisational legacy, frequently invoked in Essays and GS answers.
• Interlinks: Aryabhata ↔ Gupta Age ↔ Science and Technology; Ajanta ↔ Buddhist Art ↔ Gupta Period; Gandhara ↔ Indo-Greek contacts ↔ Kushan period; Nalanda ↔ Buddhist education ↔ Harsha period.
• Zero and Decimal: A perennial UPSC theme — India's contribution to mathematics and its transmission via Arabs to Europe.
• Religious Influence on Social Classes: RS Sharma's argument that brahmanical indoctrination reduced the need for physical coercion (unlike Greece/Rome where whips were used) is a key comparative civilisational insight.
• Charvaka/Lokayata: India's materialist philosophical tradition — frequently tested as a counter-intuitive fact given India's reputation for spiritualism.

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1. Christianity in India: Christianity came to India in about the first century AD but did not make much headway in ancient times — do not assume it was a major ancient Indian religion.
2. Sankhya and God: The Sankhya system of Kapila does NOT recognise the existence of God — it is a materialist system within the six schools. Many candidates assume all classical Indian philosophy is theistic.
3. Kapila's dates: Kapila was born around 580 BC — roughly contemporary with the Buddha and Mahavira. Do not confuse with later Sankhya thinkers.
4. Charvaka/Lokayata: Charvaka lived in the sixth century BC — his philosophy (lokayata) argues gods do not exist and only what is sensually experienced is real. Do not confuse with Jainism or Buddhism.
5. Decimal system evidence: The earliest epigraphic evidence for the decimal system is in the beginning of the fifth century AD — NOT from Asoka's time (though numerals found in Asoka's inscriptions from the 3rd century BC).
6. Zero discovery: Zero was discovered by Indians in about second century BC — but the earliest use of zero in Arabia was AD 873.
7. Indian numerals called 'Arabic': In English, Indian numerals are called Arabic — but Arabs themselves called them hindsa (of Indian origin). This distinction is testable.
8. Algebra: In Western Europe, knowledge of algebra came from Arabs — who acquired it from India, NOT from Greece directly.

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• Ancient India: primarily agrarian, not as urban as Greece/Rome; religion far stronger influence
• Christianity: arrived 1st century AD; did not spread much in ancient times
• Buddhism: disappeared from India; spread to Japan (east) and Central Asia (north-west)
• Varna laws: sanction of both state AND religion; hereditary in eyes of law and religion
• Bhagavadgita: taught following one's own dharma → reduced need for coercion
• Kapila (Sankhya): born c. 580 BC; materialist; no God; knowledge through observation/inference/words
• Charvaka (Lokayata): 6th century BC; gods do not exist; only sensual experience is real
• Panini: 4th century BC; Ashtadhyayi (Sanskrit grammar)
• Three math contributions: notation system, decimal system, zero
• Earliest decimal epigraphic evidence: beginning of 5th century AD
• Indian numerals = Arabic in English; Arabs called them hindsa
• Numerals in Asoka's inscriptions: 3rd century BC
• Zero: discovered by Indians c. 2nd century BC; first Arab use: AD 873
• Algebra: West learnt it from Arabs, who learnt it from India (not Greece)
• Aryabhata: AD 476–500; decimal system; planets by Babylonian method; lunar/solar eclipses; earth's circumference; earth rotates, sun is stationary; book = Aryabhatiya
• Apastamba: 2nd century BC; practical geometry for altars; angles described
• Aryabhata: triangle area rule → trigonometry origin
• Suryasiddhanta: most famous astronomy work; not found in contemporary ancient East
• Varahamihira: 6th century AD; Brihatsamhita; moon rotates earth; earth rotates sun; used Greek works
• Medicine earliest: Atharva Veda (magical charms, not scientific)
• Susruta: Susrutasamhita; cataract operation; stone disease; 121 implements; diet and cleanliness
• Charaka: Charakasamhita; 2nd century AD; fever, leprosy, hysteria (mirgi), tuberculosis; possibly unaware of infectious nature