The Sound of India: Ragas, Talas, Folk Traditions, and Musical Instruments

Indian Music — Classical, Folk, Semi-Classical and Instruments

Indian music has Vedic roots: the Gandharva Veda (an Upaveda of Sama Veda) is the earliest musicological text. The seven notes of raga Kharaharapriya appear in the Sama Veda in descending order. The Natyashastra (200 BC–200 AD) by Bharata is the first systematic text on musical theory. The cosmic sound pervading the universe is called Naada Brahma, introduced by sage Narada Muni. Musical instruments such as the seven-holed flute and Ravanahatha have been recovered from Indus Valley sites.

Key Musicological Texts — Chronology:

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1. Swara (Note)

• Originally associated with Vedic recitation; now means a note or scale degree.
• Seven Swaras (Saptak / Sargam): Sa, re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni.

• Shruti ≠ Swara: A Shruti is the smallest gradation of pitch (microtone). There are 22 Shrutis in an octave but only 12 are audible — these 12 are 7 Suddha Swaras (natural) + 5 Vikrita Swaras (altered).

2. Raga (Melodic Framework)

• Etymologically from Sanskrit 'Ranj' — to delight or satisfy.
• Raga forms the basis of melody; Tala forms the basis of rhythm.
• A raga is neither a scale nor a mode — it is a scientific, precise, aesthetic melodic form with its own ascending (Aaroha) and descending (Avaroha) movement.
• Minimum notes required: 5.

Classification by Number of Notes (Jaati):

Three Types of Raga (Raga Bhed):

Hierarchy of Notes within a Raga:

Six Principal Ragas (Hindustani) — Time and Season Specific:

Note: In Carnatic music, there are 72 melas (parent scales) on which ragas are based. Carnatic ragas do NOT adhere to any time specification.

Performance Terms:

• Aaroha: Ascending movement (Sa re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni).
• Avaroha: Descending movement (Ni Dha Pa Ma Ga re Sa).
• Laya (tempo): Vilambit (slow) | Madhya (medium) | Drut (fast).
• Alap: Gradual exposition of the raga in slow tempo emphasizing Vaadi and Samvaadi; sung without words (in Aakaar — using vowel 'aa' only); opens a Hindustani performance.
• Taan: Basic notes in fast tempo showing dexterity. A short taan of 3–4 notes = Murki.
• Alankara: Ornamentation — a specific melodic pattern in succession (e.g., Sa re Ga, Ga Ma Pa, etc.).
• Sthayee/Mukhda: First part of composition (most used).
• Antara: Second part of composition.

Samay (Time of Performance):

• 12 AM–12 PM = Poorva Bhaag → Poorva Raga; Saptak: Sa to Ma.
• 12 PM–12 AM = Uttar Bhaag → Uttar Raga; Saptak: Pa to Sa.

3. Tala (Rhythmic Cycle)

• Rhythmic groupings of beats ranging from 3 to 108 beats.
• Tala is independent of the music it accompanies.
• The tempo of tala = Laya.
• Commonly used talas: Dadra, Kaharba, Rupak, Ektal, Jhaptal, Teental, Ada Chautal.
• Teen-tal (16 beats) is most commonly used by composers.

Carnatic Tala Structure:

• Three components: Laghu, Dhrutam, Anu Dhrutam.
• 35 original thalas × 5 ghaatis = 175 thalas in Carnatic music.
• Carnatic tala structure is more rigid than Hindustani.

4. Rasa (Aesthetic Emotion)

• Emotions evoked through singing/playing are Rasas (also called 'aesthetic delight').
• Originally 8 rasas; Shanta rasa was added later → Nauras (9 rasas).

After the 15th century, Bhakti (devotion) rasa was widely accepted as a 10th rasa; some musicologists consider it the same as Shanta.

5. Thaat (Classification Framework)

• A Thaat is a system for classifying ragas in groups (parent scales).
• 10-Thaat classification (Hindustani) proposed by musicologist V.N. Bhatkhande.
• A thaat must have 7 notes in ascending order only (Aaroha only; no Avaroha).
• Thaat has no emotional quality and is NOT sung; ragas derived from it are sung.

The 10 Thaats: Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, Marwa, Poorvi, Todi.

Thaat vs. Raga — Key Differences:

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Indian Music → Classical | Folk | Fusion (Classical+Folk) | Modern

Classical Music — Two Schools

Both share roots in Bharata's Natyashastra and diverged in the 14th century.

Hindustani Music (North India) — focuses on improvisation within musical structure; adopted Shudha Swara Saptaka (Octave of Natural Notes).

10 main styles of singing in Hindustani music: Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri.

Dhrupad

• Oldest and grandest Hindustani classical form; mentioned in Natyashastra.
• Roots in older forms: Prabhanda and Dhruvapada.
• 'Dhruva' = unmoving — returns Swara (tonal), Kala (time), Shabda (textual) to a fixed point.
• Zenith reached in the court of Emperor Akbar (Tansen, Swami Haridas, Baba Gopal Das; Baiju Bawra also speculated).
• Consolidated as classical form in the 13th century; declined in the 18th century.
• Uses Sanskrit syllables; of temple origin; 4–5 stanzas; performed by two male vocalists (duo).
• Accompanied by Tanpura and Pakhawaj.
• Starts with Alap (wordless).
• Four Dhrupad Gharanas (Vanis/Banis):

Haveli Style = form of Dhrupad prevalent in Bettiah and Darbhanga schools.

Khyal

• Derived from Persian — means 'idea or imagination'.
• Origin attributed to Amir Khusrau; biggest patronage by Sultan Mohammad Sharqi (15th century).
• Characteristic feature: heavy use of Taan → Alap gets much less room than in Dhrupad.
• Based on short songs (2–8 lines) called Bandish; themes are largely romantic.
• Two-song structure: Bada Khyal (slow tempo) + Chhota Khyal (fast tempo).

Tarana Style

• Rhythm-driven; fast tempo; short repeated melody with variations.
• Second contrasting melody (higher notes) introduced once.
• Requires specialised training in rhythmic manipulation.

Gharana System

• Gharana = social organisation linking musicians by lineage or apprenticeship adhering to a particular style.
• From Urdu/Hindi 'ghar' (house/family) — refers to the place of origin of the musical ideology.
• Well-known Hindustani Gharanas: Agra, Gwalior, Indore, Jaipur, Kirana, Patiala.

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Hindustani vs. Carnatic Music — Comparison

Carnatic Composition Parts:

• Pallavi: First thematic line; repeated in each stanza; best part = 'Ragam Thanam Pallavi'.
• Anu Pallavi: Two lines following Pallavi; sung at beginning (and sometimes end).
• Varnam: Sung at beginning of recital; reveals the raga; two halves — Purvanga + Uttaranga.
• Ragamalika: Concluding part; free improvisation; artists must return to original theme.
• Swara-Kalpana: Improvised section with drummer.
• Thanam: Melodic improvisation in free rhythm with Mridangam.
• Ragam: Pieces without Mridangam.

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Semi-Classical Styles of Hindustani Music

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Folk Music — State-wise Quick Reference

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Fusion of Classical and Folk — Sugam Sangeet

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Sub-types of Tata Vadya:

• Bowed: Sound drawn by bow across strings (Sarangi, Esraj, Violin).
• Plectral: Strings plucked by fingers or plectrum (Sitar, Veena, Tamboora).
• Struck: Struck by small hammer or sticks (Gotuvadyam, Swaramandal).

Key Instrument Facts:

• Tabla → principal percussion accompaniment in Hindustani classical.
• Mridangam → principal percussion accompaniment in Carnatic classical.
• Shehnai = double-reeded wind instrument with widening tube; Ustad Bismillah Khan = 'Shehnai King'.
• Flute = was called Nadi or Tunava in Vedic period; Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia = famous flutist.
• Manjira = small brass cymbal; dated to Harappan civilisation; used in temples.
• Veena = belongs to Goddess Saraswati; most revered string instrument.
• Bhangash family = pioneers of Sarod in the 20th century.

Folk Instruments — Quick Map:

• Tumbi (Punjab — Bhangra), Ektara/Tun Tuna (one-stringed; wandering monks), Dotara (two-stringed; Bauls), Pungi/Been (snake charmers; dried bottle gourd + bamboo), Algoza (double flute; Punjab), Gogona (bamboo; Bihu, Assam), Ghumot (drum; Ganesh festival, Goa), Idakka (like Damru; Kerala), Chimpta (fire tongs; Punjab).

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• Indian Heritage and Identity: The Raga-Tala-Swara framework reflects a philosophy of cosmic order — time (Samay), emotion (Rasa), and sound (Naada Brahma) are interlinked, embodying Indian civilizational continuity from the Vedic period.
• Continuity of Traditions: The Guru-Shishya (Gurukul) tradition and the Gharana system represent living transmission of knowledge — no text, but direct oral/musical lineage.
• Religion-Philosophy-Art Linkage: Dhrupad = temple origin; Bhajan/Kirtan/Qawwali/Shabad = devotional music crossing religious boundaries (Dagars — Muslims singing Hindu texts; Bhakti saints using music as social reform).
• UNESCO and Intangible Heritage: Sangeet Natak Academy (1952) promotes intangible performing arts heritage; SPIC MACAY globalizes Indian classical music — both reflect State efforts at cultural preservation.
• Indo-Persian Synthesis: Khayal and Ghazal represent the meeting of Indian and Persian musical traditions — a cultural fusion that enriched Indian music without erasing its fundamentals.
• Folk as Living Heritage: Forms like Pandavani, Baul, Lavani, and Maand represent communities' living relationship with mythology, ecology, and social life — not codified but vibrant.

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1. Raga ≠ Tala roles are often swapped: Raga = basis of melody; Tala = basis of rhythm — NOT the other way around.
2. Swara vs. Shruti: There are 7 Swaras in Indian music (Sa-re-Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni) and 22 Shrutis (microtones), of which only 12 are audible. A common wrong statement is 'there are 5 swaras in Indian music'.
3. Odava Raga = 5 notes (pentatonic), NOT 6. Shadava = 6; Sampurna = 7.
4. Thaat vs. Raga: Thaat has 7 notes (only Aaroha); Raga has minimum 5 (both Aaroha + Avaroha). Thaat is NOT sung; Raga is. Thaat has NO emotional quality. Thaats are named after ragas; Ragas are named after emotions.
5. Dhrupad zenith was under Akbar (not Aurangzeb or Jahangir). Tansen = Navaratna of Akbar's court.
6. Khyal patronage = Sultan Mohammad Sharqi (15th century), NOT Akbar. Khayal is attributed to Amir Khusrau for origin.
7. Gwalior Gharana is the OLDEST Khyal Gharana — not the oldest Dhrupad school.
8. Kirana Gharana is from a town in Uttar Pradesh — NOT Karnataka, despite famous exponents Bhimsen Joshi and Gangubai Hangal being from the Karnataka/Maharashtra border region.
9. Agra Gharana was renamed Rangeela Gharana by Faiyaz Khan — a common MCQ.
10. Tappa originated from camel riders of NW India — NOT from classical tradition; it gained legitimacy in the court of Muhammad Shah, not Akbar.
11. Ghazal originated in Iran (10th century AD) — NOT Arabia; NOT Persia in the sense of Persian court music.

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• Three pillars of Indian classical music: Raga, Tala, Swara.
• 22 Shrutis per octave; 12 audible (7 Suddha + 5 Vikrita Swara).
• 10 Thaats in Hindustani (V.N. Bhatkhande); 72 melas in Carnatic.
• Raga hierarchy: Vaadi (King) → Samvaadi (Queen) → Anuvaadi → Vivadi.
• 9 Rasas = Nauras; Shanta was added 9th; Bhakti accepted post-15th century.
• Dhrupad: Oldest Hindustani style; Sanskrit syllables; temple origin; duo performance; Pakhawaj.
• Khayal: Persian origin; Amir Khusrau; Sultan Mohammad Sharqi patronage; Bandish; Bada Khyal + Chhota Khyal.
• Thumri: Mixed ragas; Bhakti-inspired; Banaras/Lucknow Gharanas; Begum Akhtar.
• Tappa: Camel riders NW India → Muhammad Shah's court.
• Ghazal: Iran (10th century AD); max 12 couplets; always about love; Sufi connection.
• 4 instrument categories: Tata (strings), Sushira (wind), Awanad (percussion membrane), Ghana (idiophones).
• Tabla = Hindustani; Mridangam = Carnatic.
• Shehnai King = Ustad Bismillah Khan; Flute master = Pt. Hariprasad Chaurasia.
• SPIC MACAY = Kiran Seth, 1977; Sangeet Natak Academy = GoI, 1952; Bhatkhande Music Institute = V.N. Bhatkhande, 1926 Lucknow.