Faiths of a Civilisation: India's Major Religions, Their Origins, and Core Beliefs

Religions in India

India's religious plurality is unparalleled. The subcontinent is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and has also absorbed Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism into its cultural fabric. Religion in India is inseparable from philosophy, art, architecture, and social reform.

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Origin and Foundations

• The word 'Hindu' derives from the geographical area around the river Indus.
• Hinduism draws from pre-Vedic and Vedic religious philosophies.
• Srutis (revealed texts) were the Vedas: Rig Veda (~1,000 hymns on gods like Agni, Indra, Vayu, Soma), Sama Veda (music and hymns), Yajur Veda (sacrificial hymns), Atharva Veda (magic and medicine).
• Attached texts: Brahmanas (commentaries), Aranyakas (mystical teachings), Upanishads (philosophical speculations).
• Four Purusharthas (life goals): Kama (pleasure), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness), Moksha (salvation).

Four Ashrams (Stages of Life as per Upanishads)

1. Brahmachari — celibate student
2. Grihasta — householder
3. Vanaprastha — hermit/forest dweller
4. Sanyasi — ascetic (final stage; strives for Moksha)

Four Major Traditions (Sects) of Hinduism

Prominent Sects — Vaishnavism

Varkari Panth (Varkari Sampradaya):

• Worship Vishnu as Vithoba at Pandharpur temple, Maharashtra.
• Annual pilgrimage: Vari; padukas of saints carried in palkhis.
• Pilgrimage events: Ringan (sacred horse runs through pilgrims) and Dhava.
• Key figures: Jnaneshvar (1275–1296), Namdev (1270–1350), Eknath (1533–1599), Tukaram (1598–1650).

Ramanandi Sampradaya:

• Teachings of Ramananda (Advaita scholar).
• Largest monastic group within Hinduism in Asia; monks called Ramanandis/Vairagis/Bairagis.
• Worship Rama; mainly settled around Gangetic plains.
• Two sub-groups: Tyagi and Naga.

Brahma Sampradaya:

• Founded by Madhvacharya.
• Gaudiya Vaishnavism (promoted by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu) belongs here.
• ISKCON belongs to this sampradaya.

Pushti Marg Sampradaya:

• Founded by Vallabhacharya (~1500 AD); devotion based on pure love for Krishna.

Nimbarka Sampradaya:

• Also called Hamsa Sampradaya / Kumara Sampradaya; worship Radha and Krishna.

Prominent Sects — Shaivism

Nathpanthi (Siddha Siddhanta):

• Teachings of Gorakhnath and Matsyendranath; worship Adinath (form of Shiva).
• Technique: Hatha Yoga; wandering monks who keep a sacred fire (dhuni).

Lingayatism (Veershaivism):

• Founded by Basavanna (12th century AD).
• Monotheistic; worship Shiva as linga.
• Rejects authority of Vedas and the caste system.

Dashanami Sanyasis:

• Disciples of Adi Shankaracharya; associated with Advaita Vedanta; divided into ten groups.

Aghoris:

• Devotees of Shiva as Bhairava; seek salvation through sadhana in cremation grounds.

Siddhars (Tamil Nadu):

• Saints, doctors, alchemists, and mystics; believed founders of Varmam (martial art + medical treatment).

Shrautism:

• Ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala; follow Purva-Mimamsa philosophy.
• Preserve ancient Somayaagam and Agnicayana rituals.

Medieval and Modern Hindu Movements

Bhakti Movement (Medieval North India): Sanskrit texts translated to vernacular; message of devotion spread to masses.

• South India Vaishnavite saints: Alvars (devotees of Vishnu; songs compiled as Prabhandas)
• South India Shaivite saints: Nayanars (63 major saints; devotees of Shiva)

Brahmo Samaj (1828):

• Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy.
• Rejected iconography (idol worship); campaigned against Sati; established schools.
• Taken over by Devendranath Tagore (1843).
• Keshabchandra Sen broke off to form Bharatiya Brahmo Samaj → further split into Sadharan Brahmo Samaj.

Ramakrishna Mission (1897):

• Founded by Swami Vivekananda (Narendra Nath Dutta); follower of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
• Philosophy: Vedantic spirituality + harmonious coexistence of all religions + service to mankind as service to God.
• Also called Neo-Hinduism.

Arya Samaj:

• Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati; believed in supremacy of the Vedas.
• Followed iconoclasm; started Suddhi (purification/reconversion) movement.

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Shramana = one who performs acts of austerity; refers to Indian religious movements parallel to Vedic religion. All five (Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikas, Ajnanas, Charvakas) belong to the Nastika (Heterodox) school of philosophy.

Ajivikas

• Founded by Makkhali Gosala (5th century BC).
• Core doctrine: Niyati (Fate) — absolute determinism; no free will, no role of Karma.
• Atomic theory: everything composed of atoms, qualities predetermined.
• Atheists; rejected authority of Vedas; opposed Buddhism and Jainism.
• Believed in soul (atman) in material form (unlike Jainism which propounds formless soul).
• Bindusara (Mauryan king) was a follower; center: Sravasti (UP).
• Ashoka's 7th Pillar Edict mentions Ajivikas. Texts are now non-existent.

Ajnanas

• Believed in radical skepticism; knowledge about nature is impossible to attain.
• Even if attainable, knowledge is useless for salvation.
• Major rival of Jainism and Buddhism; motto: "Ignorance is Best".

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Key Facts about Gautam Buddha

Three Jewels (Triratnas)

• Buddha — the Enlightened One
• Dhamma — Teachings/Doctrine
• Sangha — Monastic order (initiated at first sermon)

Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)

1. Dukkha — Life is full of suffering
2. Samudaya — Suffering has a cause (desires)
3. Nirodha — Cessation of suffering is possible
4. Magga — Path to cessation = Noble Eightfold Path

Noble Eightfold Path

Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Meditation, Right Thought, Right Understanding. Collectively described as the Middle Path (Madhyam Marg).

Buddhism rejects: (1) Authority of the Vedas (2) Existence of Soul (Atman) — unlike Jainism which accepts the soul.

Buddhist Councils and the Tripitaka

Four Buddhist Councils held to compile Buddha's teachings into Pitakas:

• Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules)
• Sutta Pitaka (discourses)
• Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical analysis)
• Combined = Tripitaka — all written in Pali language.

Split into Hinayana and Mahayana occurred at the Fourth Council under King Kanishka.

Four Major Buddhist Schools — Comparative Table

Mahayana — Bodhisattva Concept

• Bodhisattva = one who has generated Bodhicitta (compassionate wish) to attain Buddhahood for all beings; believes in universal liberation.
• A Bodhisattva proceeds through 10 bhumis (grounds) to attain enlightenment.
• One who completes this is called Samyaksambuddha.
• Six Paramitas (perfections): Dana (generosity), Sila (virtue), Ksanti (patience), Virya (effort), Dhyana (concentration), Prajna (wisdom).

Prominent Bodhisattvas

Theravada — Special Features

• Uses Pali Canon (only complete Buddhist canon) as doctrinal core.
• Concept: Vibhajjavada (teaching of analysis).
• Samatha (calming the mind) and Vipassana (insight into impermanence, suffering, non-self).
• Key text: Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) by Buddhaghosa (5th century AD, Sri Lanka); discusses 7 stages of purification (satta-visuddhi).

Navayana Buddhism

• Propounded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar; rejects Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
• Discards karma, rebirth, monasticism, Four Noble Truths.
• Re-interprets Buddhism as a doctrine of class struggle and social equality.

Other Notable Personalities

• Nagarjuna (150–250 AD): founder of Madhyamaka school of Mahayana
• Nagasena: answered Menander I's questions in Milinda Panho (~150 BC)
• Bodhidharma (5th–6th century): transmitted Buddhism to China
• Padmasambhava (8th century): 'second Buddha' across Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan
• Dalai Lama: spiritual leader of the Yellow Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism

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Foundations

• 'Jain' from jina/jaina = Conqueror (of desires).
• No single founder; 24 Tirthankaras revealed the truth periodically.
• Mahavira was the 24th (last) Tirthankara — NOT the founder.
• First Tirthankara: Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).
• Jainism, like Buddhism, rejects Vedic authority. Unlike Buddhism, it accepts the existence of Soul (Atman).

Basics about Vardhamana Mahavira

• Born ~540 BC at Kundalgram, Vaishali; father King Siddhartha, mother Queen Trishala (Jnatrika clan).
• Left home at age 30; attained Kevalya (enlightenment) at Pava near Patna on 10th day of Vaishakha.
• Titles: Mahavira (great hero), Jaina/Jitendriya (conqueror of senses), Nirgrantha (free from all bonds).

Jain Philosophy

• Anekantavada (fundamental doctrine): ultimate truth is complex and multi-faceted; non-absolutism — no single statement can describe absolute truth.
• Three Jewels (Tri-ratna): Right Belief (samyakdarshana), Right Knowledge (samyakjnana), Right Conduct (samyakcharita).
• Five Constraints (Pancha Mahavrata):
  1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
  2. Satya (truthfulness)
  3. Asteya (non-stealing)
  4. Aparigraha (non-acquisition)
  5. Brahmacharya (chaste living) — added by Mahavira (5th tenet)

Two Major Sects — Comparative Table

Sub-sects

Digambara sub-sects:

• Mula Sangh: original community
• Bispanthi: worship tirthankaras + Yakshas/Yakshinis; Bhattarakas as dharma-gurus; concentrated in Rajasthan/Gujarat
• Terapanthi (Digambara): oppose Bhattarakas; worship only tirthankaras
• Taranpanthi: modern community

Svetambara sub-sects:

• Murtipujaka (Deravasi): keep and worship idols; saints do NOT wear muhapatti
• Sthanakavasi: pray to saints, not idols; saints wear muhapatti
• Terapanthi (Svetambara): pray to saints, not idols; saints wear muhapatti (like Sthanakavasi)

Popular Practices

• Sallekhana: voluntary fasting to death (gradual reduction of food); NOT considered suicide by Jains; can be performed by ascetics and householders. Rajasthan HC banned (2015) → SC stayed the ban.
• Pratikraman: repentance for sins; five types: Devasi, Rayi, Pakhi, Chaumasi, Samvatsari.

Major Jain Pilgrimage Sites

Dilwara (Mount Abu, Rajasthan), Palitana (Gujarat), Girnar (Gujarat), Shikharji (Jharkhand), Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).

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• Origin: Arabian Peninsula, 7th century AD. Word 'Islam' = submission to God.
• Holy texts: Quran (compiled and verified by Prophet Muhammad before his death) + Hadith (sayings of Prophet, compiled after his death) + Sunnah; together form basis of Sharia.
• Four major schools of Islamic law in India: Hanafi, Shafei, Maliki, Hambali.
• Five Pillars: Shahada, Namaz (5 times/day), Zakat (charity), Roza (fast during Ramzan), Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca — once in lifetime).
• Juma Namaz: Friday congregational prayers.
• Shia vs Sunni: differ on who should succeed Prophet Muhammad — Sunnis supported Abu Bakr; Shias supported Ali (Prophet's son-in-law). Majority of Indian Muslims are Sunni.

Islamic Reform Movements in India

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• Founded by Guru Nanak (1469–1539); non-conformist; congregational worship in dharamsala; developed langar (community kitchen) and kirtan.
• Salvation is a universal prerogative (not dependent on caste/sex); achieved through right belief, right worship, right conduct.
• Guru Arjan Dev — executed on Jahangir's orders; considered 'First martyrdom of Sikhs'.
• Guru Hargobind (1606–44): first to gird two swords (spiritual/piri + temporal/miri); built Akal Takht and Lohagarh fort.
• Guru Teg Bahadur: put to death by Aurangzeb in 1675 in Delhi.
• Guru Gobind Singh: last physical Guru; after his death, authority transferred to Guru Granth Sahib/Adi Granth (compiled 1678) and Guru Panth.
• Khalsa: initiated by Guru Gobind Singh; baptised Sikhs called 'Singh' (men) / 'Kaur' (women); possess 5 Ks: Kachcha, Kesh, Kangha, Kirpan, Kara.
• Non-Khalsa Sikhs = Sahajdhari Sikhs (Nanak-Panthis, Bhallas, Udasis).

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• Origin: Persia by prophet Zarathustra (~6–7 BCE).
• Monotheistic: one eternal god Ahura Mazda (goodness); opposed by Angra Mainyu (evil).
• First contact with India: 936 AD (fled Iran due to Islamic invasions).
• Known as Parsis; concentrated in Mumbai, Goa, Ahmedabad.
• Fire temples: Atash Bahram — only 8 in all of India.
• Sacred text: Zend Avesta (written in Old Avestan; 17 sacred songs/gathas + Athuna Vairyo).

Zend Avesta's five parts:

• Yasna: Worship with ceremony

• Videvdat: Laws against demons

• Yashts: Worship through praise

• Khordeh Avesta: Daily prayers

• Gathas: Divided into Ahunavaiti, Ushtavaiti, Spenta-Mainyu, Vohu-Khshathra, Vashishta-Ishti

• Dakhma = open space for exposing dead bodies; Dakhma Nashini = vultures that eat them; Towers of Silence in Mumbai.

Three Parsi sects:

• Shahenshai: Calendar from Last Sassanian king Yasdegard III
• Kadmi: Claim oldest/most accurate calendar
• Fasli: Follow traditional Persian calendar

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• Oldest Abrahamic religion; monotheistic; followers = Jews; God = Yahweh.
• Holy texts: Torah (first 5 books of Old Testament/Bible) + Talmud (legal/ethical writings).
• Place of worship: Synagogue.
• God gave Ten Commandments / Sefer Torah to Moses at Mt. Sinai.
• Jacob's 12 children → ancestors of 12 tribes = Bene Israel ('Children of Israel').
• Sefer Torah has 613 precepts; during prayer, male Jews wear tsisith (prayer shawl thread).

Three Jewish sects: Orthodox, Conservative, Reformists.

Five Jewish communities in India:

1. Cochinis (Malayalam-speaking)
2. Bene Israel (Marathi-speaking)
3. Baghdadi Jews (from West Asia; settled in Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata)
4. Bnei Menashe (Manipuri Jews; Manipur/Mizoram border)
5. Bene Ephraim (Telugu-speaking Jews; converted 1980s)

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• Syncretic tradition: India's multi-religious heritage is not mere coexistence but deep philosophical cross-pollination — Buddhist ethics influenced Hindu Bhakti, Sufi Islam influenced regional devotionalism, Sikh Langar institutionalised egalitarianism.
• Reform movements ↔ Colonial encounter: Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Aligarh Movement all arose in direct response to British colonial presence — connecting religion with nationalism, education, and social reform.
• Ahimsa as shared heritage: Jainism's Ahimsa, Buddhism's compassion (Karuna), and Gandhi's satyagraha form a continuous thread of non-violence that became India's global identity marker.
• Religion-art-architecture linkage: Buddhist sects patronised distinct art forms — Hinayana (Sanchi stupa with no idol), Mahayana (Ajanta paintings with Bodhisattvas), Vajrayana (Tantra-inspired iconography). Religion is inseparable from India's visual heritage.
• Endangered traditions: Ajivikas are extinct; Zoroastrian (Parsi) community is rapidly shrinking; Bnei Menashe Jews of Northeast India connect India's tribals to global Jewish heritage — UNESCO intangible heritage concern.
• Constitutional dimension: Religious plurality underpins Articles 25–28 (Freedom of Religion) and India's secular constitutional framework.

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1. Mahavira ≠ founder of Jainism — he was the 24th (last) Tirthankara. Rishabhanatha/Adinatha was the first.
2. Buddhism rejects the soul (Atman); Jainism accepts it. This is a high-frequency confusion trap.
3. Hinayana did NOT believe in idol worship of Buddha; Mahayana DID. Reversed answers are planted in options.
4. Ashoka patronised Hinayana, not Mahayana (Mahayana came later under Kanishka).
5. Lingayatism was founded by Basavanna (12th century), NOT an ancient tradition. It rejects both Vedas AND caste system.
6. Nayanars = Shaivite saints of South India (NOT North); Alvars = Vaishnavite saints of South India. Statements in exams often swap regions or religions.
7. Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Rammohan Roy (1828), NOT Dayanand Saraswati (who founded Arya Samaj).
8. Arya Samaj believed in Veda supremacy but also followed iconoclasm — not contradictory; they rejected idol worship but upheld Vedas.
9. Ajivikas were atheists and rejected karma — but they believed in the soul (atman) in material form. Do not confuse with Buddhism which rejects the soul altogether.
10. Bhadrabahu (Digambara) went to Karnataka; Sthulabhadra (Svetambara) stayed in Magadha. These are frequently swapped.
11. Digambaras follow ALL five constraints (including Brahmacharya); Svetambaras follow only four (per Parshvanatha's teachings).
12. Guru Granth Sahib was compiled in 1678 (not by Guru Nanak — Guru Nanak was the first Guru, while Guru Gobind Singh transferred authority to it as the last).

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• Vedas: Rig (hymns), Sama (music), Yajur (sacrificial), Atharva (magic/medicine).
• Four Ashrams: Brahmachari → Grihasta → Vanaprastha → Sanyasi (last stage).
• Four Sampradayas under Vaishnavism: Brahma (ISKCON), Ramanandi, Pushti Marg, Nimbarka.
• Buddha born: Lumbini, 563 BC; enlightenment: Bodh Gaya, age 35; first sermon: Sarnath; death: Kushinagar, 483 BC.
• Tripitaka: Vinaya + Sutta + Abhidhamma (in Pali).
• Split: Hinayana/Mahayana at Fourth Buddhist Council under Kanishka.
• Theravada = Pali Canon; 35.8% of world Buddhists; Mahayana = 53.2%.
• Jain Pancha Mahavrata: 5th tenet (Brahmacharya) added by Mahavira.
• Digambara: no clothes, soul in material form, 6 eternal substances, Bhadrabahu.
• Svetambara: white clothes, 5 eternal substances, Sthulabhadra.
• Zoroastrian fire temples: Atash Bahram — only 8 in India.
• Zend Avesta: 5 parts; first contact with India: 936 AD.
• Judaism: Torah (613 precepts) + Talmud; synagogue; Yahweh; Abraham-Isaac-Jacob-Moses lineage.